Foreword

This is a comprehensive report on a Subregional Seminar for Eastern and Southern African Countries titled National Policy Definition in Technical and Vocational Education: Beyond the Formal Sector. It was organised and conducted by the UNEVOC Implementation Unit in Berlin of the UNESCO International Project on Technical and Vocational Education. The host country was Kenya.

Without doubt, one of the greatest concerns of the world today is that of providing sufficient support to all people for them to enjoy a reasonably happy life. Of course, there are many factors that will determine this outcome. However, among these is the opportunity for meaningful employment that will provide at least the basic necessities for freedom from the fear of hunger and of economic oppression. However, it is evident that the world, in both developing countries and those that are developed, is not succeeding in alleviating this tragic problem of unemployment, and the suffering that results as a consequence of it.

As is well-known, UNESCO is committed by its basic mission to be concerned for the welfare of people in whatever sphere they are situated. In particular, it addresses this concern through the means of science, education and culture. It fully appreciates the central role of education as a means of constructive human development and of attaining the human welfare to which it is committed. However, it is also conscious of the fact that the problems mentioned above need individual human initiative and freedom as well as support from appropriate organisations. Thus, it has included in its mandate a commitment to supporting effective education for the world of work. This commitment has been made tangible over the past five years through support for the UNEVOC Project.

An important sphere of such education and training is that which is needed by individuals who are self-employed or employed in small-scale businesses. This is often referred to as the non-formal sector, or the informal sector. The majority of people around the world work in this sector. Yet the provision that has been made to assist them in their endeavours has been very little and, in many cases, just non-existent. Therefore UNESCO, through its UNEVOC Project, has made a commitment to reach out to these people that are beyond the formal sector of education and employment and seeks to encourage appropriate authorities, including governments, formal enterprises and non-governmental organisations, to assist the development of an effective non-formal sector within national economies.

The Seminar, of which this is a report, addressed the multifarious issues associated with this endeavour and has both identified the many problems and suggested some solutions. It is to be hoped that the report will alert the appropriate authorities around the world to the urgent need to make tangible commitments to develop and strengthen the non-formal sector including small-business enterprise.

It is my pleasure to recommend the report to you and to urge you to consider its contents in such a way as will encourage your own motivations to develop this economic and social sector to the extent that is within your own powers. Without doubt, one important initiative that needs to result from these endeavours is for all nations to develop National Policy Definitions in Technical and Vocational Education that is Beyond the Formal Sector.

Colin N. Power
Assistant Director-General for Education
UNESCO

1. Introduction: What is UNEVOC?

UNEVOC is the International Project on Technical and Vocational Education of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). It was launched in 1992, following a resolution of UNESCO's General Conference in 1991. It has established a world wide network of entities that are committed to co-operating to achieve its overall goal. This goal is to strengthen the development and improvement of technical and vocational education in UNESCO Member States. In 1992, the German Government made a commitment to UNESCO for ongoing, substantial support. Other countries, such as the Republic of Korea, Japan, France, are also providing significant contributions in various forms.

What are the objectives of UNEVOC?

The objectives are clustered into three programme areas that focus on technical and vocational education and its relationship to the world of work. These areas are:

Programme Area A:

This area fosters the international exchange of ideas and experiences and promotes studies on policy issues. It is devoted to the development of technical and vocational education systems.

Programme Area B:

This area strengthens national research and development capabilities in order to improve the infrastructures of technical and vocational education.

Programme Area C:

This area increases access to data bases and documentation and strengthens the UNEVOC Network. It addresses information, communication and networking.

What constitutes the UNEVOC Network?

The UNEVOC network includes teaching, training, planning, research and development institutions, and entities within government ministries, that are active in technical and vocational education. It is a Network that constitutes a world wide perspective of this area of education. UNESCO Headquarters in Paris serves this network through interaction on the political level with governments, UN specialised agencies, and other international organisations. The Implementation Unit in Berlin contributes significantly to the design and implementation of the Project. It is pivotal to the networking of UNEVOC Centres. Many UNEVOC activities are also executed by UNESCO's four Regional Offices: in Africa, the Arab States, Asia and the Pacific, and Latin America and the Caribbean, assisted by over 50 UNESCO Offices. National Commissions for UNESCO are also involved in selected UNEVOC activities. An International Advisory Committee advises the Director-General of UNESCO on the design and implementation of the Project.

What are UNEVOC Centres?

Member States, through their National Commissions for UNESCO, have nominated relevant national institutions to become UNEVOC Centres and Associate Centres. At the end of 1997, some 150 Centres and Associate Centres in 104 Member States had been nominated. These Centres are expected to give leadership and thrust to the education and development that results in effective performance within occupational roles. The responsibilities of the UNEVOC Centres include:

· developing and leading a national network;

· ensuring information flow to and from UNESCO and other UNEVOC Centres;

· ensuring that expertise is shared among UNEVOC Network members;

· providing research as requested by the UNESCO Secretariat;

· contributing to UNESCO publications and data bases;

· updating the data of the UNEVOC Directory with information on all UNEVOC Centres and other relevant institutions.

What are the strategies of UNEVOC?

The following are the important strategies that are applied within the UNEVOC Project as a means of attaining the objectives:

Advocacy, policy and monitoring

UNEVOC advocates, supports the development of appropriate policy, and monitors, through various means, a number of fundamental principles relating to technical and vocational education that are embraced by UNESCO. These include: the correlation of effective and efficient technical and vocational education with human development; the primary support for the least developed countries; the access for women to technical and vocational education; the increasing of co-operation between technical and vocational education institutions and the world of work; the improved status of technical and vocational education.

Information source and communication

UNEVOC initiates and encourages the identification, collection, description and dissemination of information and knowledge concerning innovation, ideas and experience in technical and vocational education. This is achieved through studies and publications, through workshops and expert meetings, and through the international exchange of specialists in technical and vocational education.

The quarterly newsletter "UNEVOC INFO", available in both English and French, is compiled and distributed. The UNEVOC Directory presents comprehensive information about UNEVOC Centres and Associate Centres, and other relevant bodies. An up-to-date Inventory of UNEVOC activities around the world is available. A series of UNEVOC Studies is also published.

In order to present information in as clear and user-friendly way as possible, UNEVOC employs the most contemporary means of communication available to it and to its partners. One such means is the Internet. Increasingly, information about UNEVOC, its activities and its publications, is available on the WorldWideWeb.

Professional development and exchange

As a means of harvesting the ideas, experiences and recommendations of significant professionals world wide within the field of technical and vocational education and of human resource development within enterprises, seminars, symposiums and workshops are organised and conducted. This is frequently done in co-operation with other important players in the field.

Examples: · Co-operation between Educational Institutions and Enterprises in Technical and Vocational Education: A Seminar for Key Personnel from Africa and Asia · The Promotion of Equal Access of Girls and Women to Technical and Vocational Education: An International Expert Meeting

Consultancy and advisory services

UNEVOC assists Governments and institutions in the development of technical and vocational education, as requested. This endeavour extends beyond the UNEVOC Network. International experts are included in this activity. Thus, a comprehensive, international perspective of technical and vocational education and the world of work is brought into focus.

Example: Advise on projects that would assist the development of technical and vocational education in Azerbaijan

Co-operation

The need for co-operation and mutual support among entities responsible for technical and vocational education, both nationally and internationally, is increasingly obvious. UNEVOC encourages and supports this co-operation in a number of ways. One important way is through the process of twinning. This is an arrangement whereby a UNEVOC Centre forms a joint association with another Centre, with a work enterprise, with a research institution, or possibly with some other training or educational institution, in order to cooperate in professional endeavours and to gain increased benefit therefrom.

UNEVOC Partners

International and intergovernmental organisations, such as the International Labour Organisation, national governmental and non-governmental organisations, and specialised institutions in Member States, cooperate with UNEVOC. The expertise available in these institutions enhances the capacity of UNEVOC to make a significant impact on the development of technical and vocational education around the world.

UNESCO Headquarters, Paris

The UNEVOC Project is implemented under UNESCO's Education Sector in Paris. The Assistant Director-General for Education has the overall responsibility for the planning and management of the Project, with the support of the Section for Technical and Vocational Education.

In accordance with UNESCO's decentralisation policy, responsibility for the management of the Project is shared among UNESCO Paris, UNEVOC Berlin and UNESCO's Regional Offices.

UNEVOC Berlin

UNEVOC Berlin is the gistic centre" for supporting, serving and networking UNEVOC Centres. It cooperates with other entities within the Network in the design, planning, implementation and evaluation of the strategies and activities for attaining the objectives of the Project.

2. Opening and Closing Ceremonies and Speeches

2.1 Introductory statement by Professor R. Barry HOBART, UNESCO/UNEVOC Consultant

Kenya shows the way, through one significant means, of dealing in part with the world's nagging unemployment problem"

During this week, Kenya, through the co-operation of the Kenya National Commission for UNESCO and the UNESCO Nairobi Office, will host a most important Seminar addressing the issues of training and employment in the non-formal sector, termed Jua Kali in Kenya. Unemployment is one of the most pressing problems facing the world today, whether we consider sophisticated European countries like Germany or France, or developing countries in Latin America, in South East Asia, in the African continent, or in countries in transition like Hungary and Poland. Even a country like Sweden, that has traditionally been free from this problem, is now facing serious levels of unemployment. Every government around the world has to grapple with this issue!

There are many and varied causes for this phenomenon and the solutions to it are by no means easy. But one most significant contribution to its solution is the support, to the greatest extent possible, of the individual initiatives of people to create their own employment, and, as a consequence, sufficient wealth to meet at least their most basic needs. The Jua Kali programme of Kenya, that has been encouraged and supported for some years by President Moi, is a real and practical example of releasing the entrepreneurial initiatives of the very ordinary person, by which 75% of the world can be classified, to create effective small-business enterprises.

UNESCO, that has always been concerned for the needs of the underprivileged through its programmes in basic education, literacy, and the like, has now extended this concern, in the past four years, by creating a project that is called UNEVOC. This project addresses all the many and varied issues relating to education and training for the world of work, and to maintaining the efficient performance of people within that work. This embraces people employed in government enterprises, in large scale enterprises, small-business enterprises, or in the non-formal sector.

This UNESCO/UNEVOC Programme has been supported by a number of different countries, such as France, Japan, the Republic of Korea; but most especially by Germany that has matched financially the contribution of UNESCO to the UNEVOC Project since its inception.

In fulfilment of the special concern that UNESCO has for the African continent, this Seminar is being conducted in Nairobi this week and is titled: National Policy Definition in Technical and Vocational Education: Beyond the Formal Sector. The Seminar will lead twenty participants from twelve African countries as they address the multitude of issues related to the effective support for the development of small-business enterprise and of the entrepreneurial attitudes and skills needed for the non-formal sector to make its invaluable contribution to the alleviation of unemployment around the world. This support must come from governments, from the many other financial entities within the economy, from society as a whole and its attitudes, and from the social partners, which includes the important role of unions. The discussion and debates that will characterise this Seminar will be as relevant to the developed world as to the developing world and to the countries in transition. UNESCO feels privileged to make this small contribution to what is a pre-eminent problem within our societies today.

2.2 Opening speech by Professor Shem WANDIGA, representative of Kenya on the UNESCO Executive Board



Secretary General, Mr Chacha-Ogwe, of the Kenya National Commission for UNESCO, Professor Barry Hobart, Seminar Organisers, Distinguished Participants, Ladies and Gentlemen.

I feel highly honoured to be with you here as the Guest of Honour during the official opening of this important Seminar. I also wish to welcome you to Kenya. I hope that you enjoy our tourist attractions as well as participating in this Seminar.

In presenting this speech, I must firstly say that I feel at home. One aspect I enjoy most on these types of occasions is the meeting of many people from varied backgrounds. This enhances the prospects of peace worldwide.

In Kenya, since 1963, we have struggled to create employment by creating industries, businesses, and our own institutions. This experience has taught us that we still lack something; and that is training. We have about 40,000 university students of which about 8,000 come out each year to find employment. Other sectors of education also produce some 8,000 people each year to add to the employment field. But the jobs are not sufficient to cope with these numbers. With this experience, the Kenya community needs to make a thorough assessment to determine where failure may have occurred. Thus, it is appropriate that this Seminar is organised by UNEVOC, the arm of UNESCO that is concerned with education and training for the world of work.

UNEVOC is the International Project on Technical and Vocational Education of UNESCO. This Project was launched in 1992 resulting from a resolution of UNESCO's General Conference in 1991. UNEVOC has established a worldwide network to achieve the overall goal of strengthening the development and improvement of technical and vocational education in UNESCO Member States. The activities of UNEVOC focus on programmes related to system development, infrastructures and information communication networking.

Mr Chairman, the organisation of this Seminar is indeed an implementation of a section of the UNEVOC Workplan for 1996-1997 which states that “In order to assist the efforts of African Member States to develop broad-based national policies in technical and vocational education, a subregional Seminar will be held in technical and vocational education. Based on this Seminar, and subsequent to it, national follow-up activities will be initiated.”

Mr Chairman, this Seminar is being held at an opportune time: a time when our countries are faced with economic hardships caused by high population growth rates and urbanisation that have put considerable pressure on education, training, health and employment. The region's economic problems have been compounded by the adverse effects of world economic recession, drought, refugee problems, externally influenced structural adjustment programmes and external debt problems.

These problems have posed a major challenge for the countries within the region in their quest for the provision of quality education and training. It is therefore imperative that the current technical education and training policies are reviewed to ensure that they address the contemporary socio-economic challenges appropriately. For example, the adoption of externally influenced structural adjustment programmes have ushered in economic liberalisation, privatisation of certain parastatals, retrenchment of staff within public and private sectors of the economy, reduction of Government grants to public institutions, the introduction of cost sharing and other cost recovery measures, and the encouraging of more autonomy while emphasising transparency and accountability.

The second issue that must be taken into account when formulating a technical training policy is the growing unemployment among technically skilled people due to slow growth within the formal sectors of our economies. This creates a need for a sustained focus towards rapid industrialisation and the strengthening of the small-scale industries and the informal sector to provide additional employment. Emphasis on self-employment is a must! Bringing our training programmes into line with self-employment is therefore essential.

Professor Hobart, as co-ordinator of this Seminar, you and your participants have a very challenging and important task ahead of you within the next five days. In order to accomplish this task satisfactorily it will indeed be necessary to at least develop an agreed-upon vision. The ideal, or desired end-product, is to develop a national training policy, to carry out a survey based on demographic economic factors that influence decisions on education and training, to review the current policies, to discuss labour market issues, to benefit from the report of a subregional workshop on “The Financing and Management of Vocational Education and Training in Eastern and Southern Africa” and, finally, to carry out a comparative analysis of the policies of the countries attending the Seminar.

I hope that you come up with recommendations that will go a long way towards bringing out appropriate policies for the region.

It is now my pleasure to declare the Seminar officially open. Thank you.

2.3 Closing speech by Mr S. M. KYUNGU, Director of Education, Ministry of Education, Kenya


Mr. Chairman, Professor Hobart, Distinguished Participants,

It gives me great pleasure to be invited to conclude this UNESCO/UNEVOC Seminar today with some parting observations.

First, let me say that not only is it evident, from the title of this Seminar, that you have been addressing issues of education and training related to the world of work that are of considerable importance, but also, I am informed, that you have addressed these issues in significant depth and from a wide variety of perspectives.

As we all appreciate, education and training is ultimately designed to expand the human person and enable that person to move towards a maximum development of individual potential. By so doing, the person, in whatever context, should increasingly enjoy the pleasure of living and of meeting the challenges that confront each one of us, in one form or another, every day of our lives. Perhaps the most significant of these challenges is finding a satisfying role in the world of work, and progressing in it. Sadly, we have to admit, that for many in this world they are unsuccessful in that challenge.

The problems of unemployment, underemployment, unsatisfying employment, that are compounded by excessive levels of population growth and grossly uneven distribution of the world's wealth, compels us to look long and hard at the world of work and the strategies that we can devise, develop, implement, and evaluate to make that world meet human needs in a far more effective way than it does in most areas of the world today. Even in much of the developed world this statement is true. And it is patently true in the developing world!

Thus, your analysis in this Seminar of the informal sector in Kenya, which we call the Jua Kali, or what is elsewhere called the non-formal sector, even the small-business sector, is of primary importance to the world's need for increasing wealth and a better distribution of it. The needs to devise more effective means of training for this sector, of lifting its status and acceptability as an area of employment, of encouraging it as an effective and satisfying potential for entrepreneurship, of integrating it more fully into the total economy, of giving it the financial support from various sources it needs to develop, of lifting the standards of its output to enable it to succeed in the global economy with its rigorous competition, and many other such issues that you have addressed in this Seminar: all these urgently need effective and efficient solutions.

I look forward, therefore, to receiving a copy of the publication that will be produced by UNEVOC Berlin which will record the deliberations and recommendations that you have made during this week as an important attempt to influence decision-making entities around the world in terms of significantly improving the non-formal sector and small-business enterprise for meeting the production and employment needs that confront us today.

It is encouraging to know that UNESCO has extended its efforts to achieve its goals of improving human welfare through education, science and culture, by addressing the issues of education for the world of work through the UNEVOC Project. I would encourage you participants to return to your own individual countries and make every effort to assist in and support the application of the recommendations you have made through this Seminar. I would also encourage the UNEVOC Project to continue in its efforts to assist UNESCO to achieve its worthy goals, by furthering UNEVOC's own particular endeavours, such as this Seminar held in Nairobi this week.

I wish you a safe return to your individual countries, and hope that we can welcome you once again in the near future to Kenya. Thank you.

3. Discussion and Debate

3.1 Parameters of the discussion and debate

Some themes emerged throughout the Seminar that became, in effect, the parameters of the discussion and debate. These were:

· That the non-formal sector, or informal sector, differs significantly from country to country and even within a country. The differences tend to stem from: the context of the non-formal sector, the support given it by governments and other relevant entities, the attitudes of the society towards it, the market that it addresses, the level of competencies of those engaged in it, the recognition it is given within the total economy, and the degree to which it is encouraged within the society as a whole.

· That, as a result of the above, it is well-nigh impossible to agree on a definition of the non-formal sector, and a delineation of it from the formal sector that would apply universally. For example, there was considerable debate as to whether 'hawkers' should be included within the sector or not. It became obvious that an answer to this question depended upon the traditions of a particular society, the attitudes of people to the sector, and, quite importantly, the concepts and philosophy held as to what constitutes genuine economic activity and, therefore, what actually does contribute to the economic development of a nation.

· That the measure of autonomy and independence that the non-formal sector should have is difficult to determine. Vigorous debate centred around the proposition that the non-formal sector should be formalised. Again, there was uncertainty with respect to the degree to which there should be intervention within the sector without that intervention becoming an intrusion that inhibits personal initiative and personal freedom.

· That, while there was general agreement that legal support should be given to the non-formal sector, and that such support should be thorough, it was also recognised, flowing from the above, that it is difficult to define the exact nature that such legal support should take.

3.2 Points of agreement that were highlighted

The following points of agreement reoccurred time and again during the discussion and debates.

· Population growth is of primary importance to the economic, employment and social development of the non-formal sector. In some countries there has been a tendency for population growth to outstrip the employment possibilities within the total economy, let alone within the non-formal sector. This impacts seriously upon the non-formal sector, upon the potential for increasing training within it, on its employment potential, upon the infrastructure needed to support its development and its increasing efficiency, and on the logistics of control. Thus, it was affirmed that the control of population growth is of primary importance to the development of an effective non-formal sector within the economy.

· There needs to be a greater articulation among the various economic sectors within a nation. Thus, the non-formal sector must be included in the total economy in such a way as to allow for transition from that sector to small business, to employment within the formal sector, to the extending of competencies for progress within, or change of, employment, etc. To achieve this aim it was recognised that greater emphasis must be given to training for the sector, to standards both of product and employment, and to lifting the status of the non-formal sector.

· Considerable importance was given to the need for training for the sector and within the sector. The provision of that training needs to be characterised by flexibility, relevance, dynamic curricula that reflect, as immediately as possible, the changes in technology, and the diversification of competencies needed for sustained employment and employ-ability within the economy. In this context, emphasis was given to the need for competencies (knowledge, skills and attitudes) that go beyond tools and equipment to the preparation of people for the real world of work. In the non-formal sector especially, these competencies would include support for self-employment, entrepreneurship and individual initiative. Further, these competencies need to be contextually relevant, and enable and encourage lifelong learning and development.

· The need for planning that develops co-ordinated and well-thought-out plans for the various sectors of the economy, especially the non-formal sector, and that are applied rigorously and consistently, was thoroughly endorsed. It was perceived that such planning would facilitate the articulation among the sectors mentioned above, would address the whole issue of training and the personnel needed, and the essential competencies required by such personnel to deliver the training that will effect the standards of production and output necessary for the informal sector to be integrated into the economy. This planning would also address the legal framework necessary for the efficient functioning and development of the non-formal sector, the financial support of it that is essential, the provision of the infrastructure required for its development and diversification, and an appropriate balance between the intervention that is necessary for its controlled development within the context of the total economy, and the preservation of the freedom necessary for personal enterprise and entrepreneurship to flourish.

· The non-formal sector (especially if small-business enterprise is included in that term) is of enormous importance to employment and to the production necessary for the satisfaction of basic human needs in every part of the global economy. However, it will not develop and flourish unless its status within the economy and the society as a whole is lifted. It was recognised that the whole issue of the status needed for education and training for the world of work to be chosen by potential learners, and to be appropriately rewarded, is complex. Yet it was acknowledged to be of primary importance to the addressing of employment and employability, of the levels of production necessary to satisfy human needs, of the lifting of productivity within the context of the global economy, and, thus, for it to be competitive within the economy as a whole.

· Closely related to the above issue was the recognition that attitudes affect the economy, especially the non-formal sector, across a wide spectrum of dimensions that are relevant to an efficient world of work. As a consequence, the formation of appropriate and supporting attitudes must be an essential part of any education and training that relates to the world of work. Such attitudes affect the attaining of the essential standards needed within the non-formal sector, the desire for the creative independence needed for the choosing by appropriate people to engage within that sector, for people to enjoy a sense of satisfaction from their activity within the sector, for employment mobility across sectors to be maintained, and for financial support to be given to the initiatives of people wanting to participate in the sector.

· It was generally agreed, in the light of the papers presented, that the issue of gender and the support that needs to be given to girls and women in terms of the non-formal sector were, generally around the world, not adequately addressed. There were some exceptions to this observation. However, all agreed that this area of universal human concern today should also be in the forefront of support given for the development of the non-formal sector.

· As could be expected from a group of highly-experienced people who were seeking to analyse carefully the needs of the non-formal sector, it became increasingly obvious as the discussion and debates went on that there were more areas of uncertainty than of certainty among the group. This led to a repeated affirmation by the participants of the need for thorough research and studies to be undertaken in the various settings that allow for contextual relevance and reliable and valid data on which the multitude of decisions to be made over the next decade can be based. This strong consensus among the participants forms the most pressing recommendation that came from the Seminar. This is recorded in the next section that enumerates the recommendations from the Seminar.

3.3 Discussion and debate addressing specific issues


(a) The economy


Technical and vocational education is frequently relegated to a secondary position by politicians because an insufficient number of them understand how vitally important this area of education is and its primary contribution to economic development. This is even more true of the politicians' understanding of and attitudes to the non-formal sector. It was also asserted that, frequently, formal education, and especially the higher education sector, has a stronger lobby within the political world than does the non-formal sector and small-business enterprise. Thus, politicians must be helped to develop an increased understanding of this sector and its needs in order that it commands the attention and power over resources that are appropriate for its healthy development.

It was felt that a paradox existed between the necessity for the liberation of the market economy in order to establish standards, high productivity and effective competition on the one hand, but, on the other hand, the need to maintain sufficient protection to maintain a viable market for the output from the non-formal and small-business sector.

The control of land and space was also seen as an important economic problem with respect to the sector. The congestion that is occurring in cities causes considerable difficulties and frequently causes land for use by the non-formal sector to become impossibly scarce and expensive. This again related to the infrastructure that is essential to support the healthy development of the non-formal sector.

(b) Employment

It seems that increasingly market forces are allowed to determine vital areas of decision-making without being modified by other social considerations. For the informal sector to be able to succeed in this arena, self-employment competencies need to be developed. These competencies include the wide range of knowledge, skills and attitudes needed to become an effective and efficient entrepreneur. However, it was felt that these competencies are difficult to develop, and that the many failures in the non-formal sector tend to indicate this. This led to an expression of the need to improve considerably the curricula and teaching related to the development of entrepreneurial skills.

When discussing “employment” and “unemployment” it was recognised that these terms have tended to change over the past years. Thus, to address the issues that relate to them fruitfully, there is an urgent need to define the terms.

Various areas of the economy were seen to be significantly important with respect to employment. The problems relating to the immigrant population, to the mobility of the worker, to the globalisation of the world of work and its impact on training, to displaced persons such as refugees, to gender within the work force, and particularly to youth unemployment were all seen to be highly relevant to the non-formal sector and its potential for employment. It was noted that the Sessional Paper Number One of 1986 (Kenya) on “Economic Development for Renewed Growth” recommended the encouragement of self-employment as a partial solution to the unemployment problem. However, in this context, the problems that exist within this sector are manifest crudity in standards: lack of quality, lack of organisational skills, lack of marketing skills and financial know-how. These problems are closely linked to training. In this respect, it was felt that the formal institutions could help the non-formal sector by including entrepreneurial competencies in their own courses, and by assisting people in the non-formal sector and small-business enterprise to undertake entrepreneurial initiatives. But emphasis was placed on the complexity and comprehensiveness of entrepreneurial competencies. Thus, they need to be developed well if the non-formal sector is to succeed.

(c) Finance


It was agreed that there are serious problems relating to finance in the non-formal sector. Small-scale enterprises must be established on a cost-effective basis. If they are not, it is impossible for them to obtain the loans, from the government or other financial institutions, that they need. They must tap into financial donors, and be genuinely income-generating entities.

A serious difficulty with respect to technical and vocational educational and training institutions becoming income-generating entities that could contribute to the financial resources for the sector is that the income generated often goes back to the Ministry and does not become a reward for entrepreneurial efforts. This dampens motivation.

Considerable discussion was held on the training levy as a means of finance. But the money obtained from such a levy is often available to formal education and to creating jobs; not to the informal sector. Access to finance is a very important issue for the non-formal sector. Frequently this is not possible for small business enterprises, and especially the non-formal sector.

It was also noted that many activities in the non-formal sector are donor-funded and, thus, they become difficult to sustain when the donors pull out.

(d) Education and training


The problems with technical and vocational education and training that seem to be common among most of the countries represented in the Seminar are relevance, equity, access, quality and lack of a national training strategy. It was felt that there is a great need for the integration of technical and vocational education and training with secondary and general education.

In terms of teaching/learning strategies, it was strongly asserted that education and training should go to where the people are; and not always expect that the learner must come to where the training institutions are. Again, too often foreign syllabuses are used in the education systems of developing countries. These may not be at all relevant. Nor may they suit the appropriate teaching/learning strategies for a particular community. With respect to the syllabuses, it was felt that there is also a real mismatch between training programmes and industrial experience in most of the countries addressed. Again, it was voiced that students may have toolkits, and gain the necessary knowledge, but still not be successful. Education is not just about knowledge and equipment, but about standards, attitudes and competencies.

The problems of lack of education and training are marginalising a significant portion of the population. We need to evaluate our educational experience: what have we learned from it? People must be able to take in the changes that are in their context of the world of work and apply their learning to these, or adapt their learning to them. Thus, people must learn how to learn so that they can adapt themselves to, and progress in, the light of change.

Some discussion was had about the place of standards. Some felt that if we insist too much on standards then we may marginalise the marginalised - the non-formal workers. Others felt that standards were of primary significance. Most felt that with the reality of globalisation and competition, standards and quality are imperative. Agitating for acceptable standards from both the formal and informal sector should not be construed as marginalising the informal sector producers, but rather as taking them aboard so that they ultimately make it into the competitive global world. Further, it was felt that the possibility of providing protection of industry in a particular country was fast becoming impossible. It was also recognised that there is a close and important relationship between evaluation and certification of learning experiences.

The stakeholders in this area of education and training need to be co-ordinated. Such stakeholders are: private training institutions, public training institutions, industry, various government departments and ministries, and trade unions. This related to the question of how people graduate up the career and employment ladder. Is it possible for them to go from the non-formal sector, to small-business enterprise, and on to larger institutions of employment? This highlighted the reality that many people who are engaged in the non-formal sector have no education at all. Thus the transition, or progress, within the world of work becomes very difficult.

This caused the group to consider also the question of the retraining of graduates and the reality of lifelong learning. It is possible to upgrade the skills of apprentices who have graduated many years ago? What are institutions doing about retrenchment? It seems that there is no education directed towards people who get into the non-formal sector. That is, there is really no, or very little, preparation for the world of work. There is also the problem that courses given to assist the development of competencies for this sector do not lead to formal qualifications.

Another problem is that equipment on which students are trained may be very sophisticated: for example, in medicine. But then the graduate goes back to a village where the facilities are much less sophisticated. Also, many of the best facilities are situated in urban areas and are therefore inaccessible to many rural dwellers.

Whenever training takes place it should allow for adaptability to new situations and be responsive to technological change and to changing social needs. Open-air training was recommended as adjusting to the problems of insufficient equipment and facilities. Distance education was recommended as a way of bringing education to the learner. Competency-based education was seen as a means of establishing relevant open-entry open-exit systems of learning and the development of competencies as they are needed and relevant. There is a need to open up workshops and their equipment, etc. to be used for a fee by the informal sector over weekends for the purposes of training and production. The question of the adaptability of skills needs to be addressed in the light of the differences that exist between the world of work and training institutions.

(e) Curriculum

Serious problems were expressed in terms of curriculum development for technical and vocational education and training. It was felt that curriculum development was not fast enough to keep up with the changes in technology. The computer is a good example. By the time a curriculum has been developed to deal with the competencies needed with present understanding and skills, those competencies have become out-dated. Thus, the curriculum tends always to be dragging behind the contemporary knowledge and practice. This exacerbates the problems of relevance of the skills developed by graduates and limits the demand for their employment Thus, curricula must be flexible and ready to adapt to change. Participatory development of curricula was advocated where all the stakeholders would contribute.

Cultural thinking and appreciation should be included in all technical and vocational training curricula. Further, an appreciation for the environment and the development of attitudes to protect it should characterise all technical and vocational education and training curricula. Again, all education should develop and extend the capacity of learners to become critical thinkers. This is important in technical and vocational education and training as well as in general education.

(f) Teachers/trainers


The corollary of these problems with the curricula is that of teacher/trainer training. If the curriculum is kept up to date, how are the teachers up-dated in their knowledge and skills to teach and demonstrate the new competencies? In the face of change and the dynamics of development, how do we effectively train the trainers? That is, if we are to have good teaching, then the question must be asked as to how to prepare the implementers of training: teachers and industry trainers. This was seen as a vital issue to be addressed.

(g) Jua Kali in Kenya


Jua Kali in Swahili means 'hot sun'. Over the course of years it has come to be used to refer to the informal or non-formal sector of the economy. It is now known in Kenya as the Jua Kali Development Programme.

Kenya is experimenting. There are no clear results and sometimes the experiments are not really relevant and to the point. However, it is trying to find answers to the most pressing problems facing this vital sector. It has faced the difficulties of Kenya in recent years that have included problems of drought, structural adjustment, high debt, and refugee influx that have slowed down economic growth. Kenya is working in a situation in which the economy, the society, technology and many other aspects of human behaviour and thinking are dynamic. Thus, it is confronted daily with change; and we must learn to adjust to it in a positive, creative and constructive way.

The Jua Kali's value and place needs to be deeply embedded into the society if it is to develop, improve and increase its economic potential. Again, it needs to have a very real and effective relationship with other economic entities within the society: both the middle man and the larger scale enterprises. Frequently the status of the informal sector makes it the 'next best' if the person fails to get into the formal sector. This does not encourage the non-formal sector as a real and important entity within the economy and the world of work. The image of the sector is, however, rapidly changing.

Policy seems to be confused and it is hard to develop a substantive policy. However, significant steps have been taken in the process of policy development. But our aims must be clear in education and, particularly, in technical and vocational education. In general, it must be focused on improvement in the quality of life. Technical and vocational education and training ought to contribute to (a) world peace, and (b) the two essential freedoms: freedom from fear and freedom from want.

There is the important question of who should represent the informal sector in the decision-making bodies within the society, politics and the economy. This led to a significant emphasis on the need for flexibility. The question was posed as to how inflexibility can be changed. Inflexibility is often related to formal processes, bureaucracies, approving processes, etc. that cause the outcomes of curricula efforts to be irrelevant by the time they receive approval and are implemented. Thus, again, flexibility was emphasised as essential to responding to change.

The political stability of a country is extremely important for the development of a country and its economic prosperity. This also affects training and education.

Two locations of the Jua Kali were visited by the participants. These visits were led by the officials of the locations and explained to the participants. It was observed that the problems of space were critical. Plans to improve training were manifested by new buildings, partly finished, that are designed to provide for training. The general working environment was felt by many participants to be inferior and could be improved. It was obvious that this resulted partly from the critical shortage of space. Safety was a factor that seemed to need careful attention. The need for emphasis on training, standards, and targeting specific markets was reinforced by these visits.

4. Recommendations

A National Strategy is needed to be developed by all countries that defines:

a) a vision for this sector,

b) the aims and objectives,

c) the time frame for implementation,

d) that considers carefully the social and economic factors operating,

e) that looks at the environment, and

f) studies carefully the context in which technical and vocational education and the non-formal sector is operating.

In-depth studies of the non-formal sector and the role of small-business enterprise in economic development should be undertaken. An attempt at such a study has been done in Botswana, as evidenced by PEER consultants report of February 1997.

1. Small entrepreneurs who show the will and whose products and/or services have the potential for improving the lives of those participating in the enterprise world should be assisted by government intervention through financial and logistic support with suitable shelter and basic equipment to enhance the quality of products and services from the non-formal sector and from small-business enterprises.

2. Legal support of the non-formal sector should be given and should be thoroughly implemented.

3. Governments, and other responsible entities in the various nations, should address seriously the problems of school drop-outs and youth unemployment and determine the contribution that the non-formal sector can make to solving these problems.

4. There must be national support of regulatory population growth if the problems of unemployment are to be solved.

5. Every nation should develop a positive action for female participation in technical and vocational education and training.

5. Participants' Presentations


5.1 A Position Paper: “Technical and Vocational Education and Training Policy in Kenya” by Mr Peter O. OKAKA


(1) Population

Kenya's population during the 1989 census was estimated to be 22.1 million, and subsequent year (1990) estimated population was 22.8 million, a growth of 3.6% per annum. It was noted that, if this trend continued, Kenya will have a population of about 30.1 million by the year 2000.

According to the same census of 1989, the age composition of its population portrayed the following features: 59% of Kenyan are people aged less that 20 years, and, by contrast, the most productive group aged 20 to 59 years constituted only 36% of the population while 18% of the total population (3.8 million) were children under 5 years. Further to this, 20% of the same population, 4.3 million, were women of child-bearing age (i.e. 15 to 49 years old). These population trends have continued to remain the same.

To this end, the current population potential will continue to influence the size and expansion of education and training sectors in an effort to cope with increasing demands of education and training from the school-going age.

According to the current projections of population for Kenya (1980-2000), it is estimated that the number of primary school children (6-12 years) by the year 2000 will be between 7 and 9 million. As stated earlier, there will be a high demand for education, training and employment. This is a major challenge to be faced and addressed by our country, even if fertility and mortality decline or remain constant.

(2) Economic situation

The Kenya government during the last three decades has been committed to provide avenues for all her citizens to participate fully in the economic development of their nation, and consequently endeavour to achieve a decent standard of living.

During this period, Kenya has witnessed mixed economic performances which have included varied standards of living of her citizens. The first decade of Kenya's independence saw Gross Domestic Product (GDP) grow by an average of 6.5% annually. This growth was indeed far above the population growth rate and ensured that the citizens enjoyed growing per-capita incomes.

This was made possible through expanded agricultural cultivation of high value crops which indigenous Kenyans were denied opportunity to grow during the colonial era.

During the second decade of Kenya's Independence, the then good economic performance declined due to a number of factors. The major factors included adverse effects of world economic recession, the first oil crisis of 1973, increased population growth rate, drought, refugee influx from other neighbouring countries, and external debt problems.

However, since 1986 to 1993, the Government addressed itself to the strategies of reversing the trend by formulating and implementing Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) contained in the Sessional Paper No. 1, 1986, on Economic Management for Renewed Growth.

This problem of economic stagnation was tackled through three major policy fronts, namely: the integral role of the private sector in the economy and the impact of high budget deficits of restrictive foreign trade policies. New trends and concepts such as cost-sharing, retrenchment, sale of parastatals, price decontrols, removal of import licensing, foreign exchange deregulation and removal of Government subsidies have featured very much in our current economic management practices. Although these policies have over-stretched the people, the government has stabilised the economy and revived growth: GDP grew by 3% in 1994, 5% in 1995 and an estimated 6% in 1996.

In spite of these economic hardships, the government has continued to give high priority to education and training which takes over 38% of the Government's Annual Recurrent Budget.

(3) Human resource development

The Government has always considered the human resource as the most critical input in the mobilisation for national development needs.

In summary, to date there are 5.5 million pupils in primary schools, 620,000 pupils in secondary schools, 64,200 students in vocational and technical training institutes, 20,000 in teachers colleges and 40,000 in national universities. In 1995, of 400,000 pupils who did the Kenya Certificate of Primary Education, only 45% proceeded to secondary schools, and of 140,000 who did the Kenya Certificate of Education, only 6.6% will join the national universities. There is, therefore, an urgent need to train and absorb the large numbers of both primary and secondary school-leavers in productive economic activities.

In order to establish the changing skill demands in the country, the Kenya Government carried out a manpower survey, between 1986-88, which revealed that an overall demand of occupational employment in the modern sector is expected to grow by 40% per year (Carpentry and Joinery, Textiles and Food Processing - 10%, Electrical Trades - 7%, Mechanical Engineering - 8% and Business Courses - 4%). The projected growth is consistent with the prediction of Sessional Paper No. 1 of 1986 on “Economic Management for Renewed Growth”.

Since the informal sector is expected to play a major role in economic activities, it follows that a good proportion of the products of technical training institutes will be absorbed by the sector. The actual absorptive capacity of the sector has not been determined but it is estimated that the sector will create about 100,000 jobs per year. What is critical is to develop training programmes which are market-driven in order to achieve this target.

However, the liberal arts related courses will continue to be dormant at under graduate level. The plan is to annually increase the science-based courses so as to achieve a ratio of 50:50 for science to arts disciplines. Increased participation of women will be realised by lowering female entry points by one point.

There is still some degree of uncertainty in the demand for skills in the economy. To start with, there is a need to carry out a new manpower survey since the one carried out in 1986 is now outdated. Even when a new manpower survey is carried out the accuracy of projections will depend on, amongst other things, demographic trends and policy changes which open economies to international trade and technological change; factors which in themselves are very difficult to predetermine.

(4) Labour market issues

Labour Market Analysis

The Kenya Government recognises the importance of Labour Market Analysis and monitoring as a basis for employment policy and programme formulation. A sound labour market analysis and monitoring system is necessary for capturing early signals of disturbances in the labour market; assessing the changing employment and unemployment situation; formulation of well-targeted policies and programmes; and for monitoring the impact of specific policies and programme incentives.

The current Development Plan, 1994-1996, and the Sessional Paper No. 1 of 1994 on Recovery and Sustainable Development to the Year 2010 underscore the importance of a sound information-base on employment trends and labour market development. The Sessional Paper further states that the Government will:

Pursue active labour market policies, monitor the labour market situations and trends, undertake occupational research to provide accurate and reliable labour market information, provide vocational guidance and counselling services to individuals and groups and also develop and strengthen employment promotion services provided in the District Employment Bureaux, collect reliable information on employment in different socio-economic sectors, household incomes and standards of living.

Labour Market Situation

Kenya, like other developing countries, is faced with a complex employment problem. First is the problem of open unemployment characterised by people without work and are either seen idling around or actively looking for work. This problem is mostly prevalent in the urban areas and the majority of the openly unemployed are young and relatively more educated.

Second is the problem of under-employment and low productivity which is most prevalent in the rural agriculture and the urban informal sector. Under-employment and low productivity are characterised by people who work for long hours yet the income from their work is not enough to meet their basic needs and/or people who would be better deployed doing something else. Third is the youth employment problem which is widespread in both the urban and rural areas. The youth employment problem is characterised by a mismatch between demand and supply in the labour market. Whereas the majority of the youth lack technical and vocational skills, many of the jobs in the labour market require such skills.

It is estimated that about 25% of the labour force are currently openly unemployed. It is further projected that the labour force will increase from 11.5 million in 1996 to 14.6 million in the year 2000. The task of providing enough jobs for the 492,000 persons who will be entering the labour force every year between 1996 and the year 2000 is not an easy one. In order to provide full employment for this rapidly growing labour force, it is projected that employment must grow at a rate of 4.3% annually between 1996 and the year 2010, or 492,000 jobs annually totalling to 6.4 million jobs over the period 1996-2010.

About 59.9% of all new jobs between 1996 and the year 2010 are expected to be created in the traditional agriculture and the rural non-farm sector, and traditional agriculture alone is expected to create about 46% of all new jobs over the period. The second largest share of new jobs is expected to be created in the urban informal sector accounting for 23.5%, followed by the modern sector which is expected to create 17.4% of all new jobs between 1996 and the year 2010.

Labour Market Policies

A number of policy approaches have been pursued since Independence in 1963 with regard to employment. The employment policy pursued during the first decade of Independence was basically concerned with Kenyanisation of jobs previously occupied by foreigners and the expansion of education and training to provide required skills for Kenyans.

Other measures that have been pursued to address the unemployment problem include the three Tripartite Agreements implemented in 1964, 1970 and 1979; promotion of informal sector employment; rural works programmes.

The current Government employment policy aims at not only providing jobs to all Kenyans who are able and willing to work, but also to ensure that the employment provided is productive. The elements of the policy include:

· Improving productivity in all sectors of the economy.

· Providing an enabling environment from private sector led economic growth.

· Promotion of human resources development in line with the changing needs of the economy.

· Accelerating of agricultural sector growth.

· Increase in smallholders productivity, and

· Expansion of rural employment.

· Integration of women and mainstream economic activities.

· Development of appropriate programmes tailored to alleviate the unemployment problem among the youth through special youth development programmes.

To this end the MRTT&T has a heavy responsibility to formulate programmes which will meet the aspirations of this nation.

(5) Technical and vocational education and training system


Historical overview of TVET

Technical training as an art and science began in Kenya a very long time ago. Long before the arrival of the Europeans, Kenyans knew how to build their houses, fashion agricultural implements, and make spears, knives, hoes, axes, cooking utensils and water containers, etc. The ancient art and technical skills made the life of our people relatively more comfortable to a degree allowed by their own national environment and skill competencies. Traditionally, these skills were passed from father to son within the family or clan in form of an apprenticeship system.

The coming of the Europeans and the decision to build the Uganda railway which attracted the Indian traders and labourers were instrumental in the training of artisans and craftsmen at Kabete Native Industrial Training Deport starting from 1924. The Christian Missionaries brought in technicians and made an effort to train Kenyans in the different skills to assist in the maintenance of the services and the operations. Such places as Mumias, Kikuyu and Machakos were early sites for technical training.

Growth and Development

The second world war brought a greater influx of people, more sophisticated equipment and machinery, and a greater need for training. Army corps were established, and recruitment on a very large scale began among the Kenyans. The need was for drivers, mechanics, builders, electricians, welders, carpenters, clerks, etc. More so-called fundis brought their skills after the war and set themselves up in the locations as craftsmen and were very useful. In the late forties and early fifties, there were more young Kenyans qualifying from primary schools. The industrial depots were upgraded to vocational schools and in the early sixties were again converted to secondary vocational schools.

Another major breakthrough for technical and vocational training in Kenya was the setting up in 1954 of a Commission for Higher Education whose main recommendation was the establishment of the Royal Technical College, Nairobi. This institution later became Nairobi University College and thereafter University of Nairobi. The Mombasa Institute of Moslem Education was already in existence having been established in 1948 to provide technical and vocational education to Moslem students of East Africa. In 1966, it was converted into Mombasa Technical Institute and became Mombasa Polytechnic in 1972. In 1961, the Kenya Polytechnic was established to provide basic craft courses which were phased out beginning in 1966 following the introduction of similar courses in vocational schools and technical high schools.

Since independence, there has been tremendous growth and development of technical and vocational education and training as a result of direct government involvement and community participation. In the late 1960s and 1970s, the government developed industrial education in 35 secondary schools. At the same time, 18 technical secondary schools were established to offer technical education at secondary level. These were converted into technical training institutes in 1986 and started offering artisan courses. In 1987, there were 4 national polytechnics, 17 institutes of technology, 4 vocational training programmes for school-leavers run by Government Ministries, parastatals, non-governmental organisations, industrial firms and private individuals.

There has been a great increase in student enrolment. In 1964, for instance, technical training institutions had an enrolment of 2,065 students which increased to 8,025 in 1975. To date, these institutions have a total enrolment of 60,000 students.

Technical and vocational training has come through many phases and patterns, and now it is no longer regarded exclusively for the second and third-rate student; but is a very important and integral part of Kenya's education system. It is now accelerated; and programmes of far-reaching importance have been developed.

(6) Objectives of technical and vocational education and training

Over the last thirty-three years, during which period Kenya has been independent, the government has continuously reviewed the education and training system so as to ensure that it serves and satisfies the aspirations of the country's youth as well as cater for the wider interests of national development. It is evident that the development of technical and vocational education and training in Kenya during the three decades can be traced back to the following four major education reviews:

1. The Kenya Education Commission of 1964/65 under the chairmanship of Prof. S. H. Ominde.

2. The National Committee for Educational Objectives and Policies (NCEOP) of 1996 under the chairmanship of the late Mr Peter Gachathi.

3. The Presidential Working Party on Second University in Kenya of 1981 under the chairmanship of Prof. C. B. Mackay.

4. The Presidential Working Party on Education and Manpower Training for the Next Decade and Beyond of 1988 under the chairmanship of Mr J. M. Kamunge.

The Mackay Report culminated in recommending the restructuring of Kenya's education system from 8:4:2:3 to the 8:4:4 system.

This recommendation was accepted by the government in March 1982, and its implementation started in January 1985. As an implementation strategy, the education system was divided into four cycles:

PEP - Primary Education Programme
SEP - Secondary Education Programme
TEP - Technical Education Programme
UEP - University Education Programme.

In this system of 8:4:4, each cycle is terminal. The curricula developed are diversified by injecting vocational oriented subjects at all levels.

The country hopes to achieve the following with improved TVET systems:

· With emphasis on technical and vocational education at primary and secondary school levels, the focus is to ensure that students graduating at every level have some scientific and practical knowledge that can be utilised for either self-employment, salaried employment or further training.

· Reducing the mismatch between supply and demand of skilled manpower and provide for those who would otherwise have wished to pursue further education, moulding the attitudes of the youth towards the world of work.

To this end, the pre-vocational component at various levels of education and training system in Kenya specifically aims at achieving the following:

The Primary Education Cycle

This target the populations of six-year-old children. The primary education aims at providing the children with adequate intellectual and practical skills useful for living in both urban and rural areas.

The primary education curriculum is based on three broad principles which are: improving its quality, content and relevance to cater for the majority of children for whom primary education is terminal, availability to all primary-school-age children, and diversifying primary education in order to enhance competence in a variety of development tasks to enable the pupils to make useful and functional articles.

In addition to academic subjects, the curriculum includes such practical subjects as:

· Home Science (with topics such as needlework, child care, food preparation and care of home).

· Art and Craft (with topics such as drawing, painting, graphic design, collage/mosaic, weaving, ornament making, clay work/pottery, leatherwork, modelling and carving, fabric, design puppetry, woodwork, metal and building construction).

· Agriculture (with practical activities such as growing crops, rearing of domestic animals, poultry and bee-keeping, making farm tools, caring for the soil and environment).

The Secondary Education Cycle

The target population for this level are the children of 14 years. The cycle aims at preparing the learner to make a positive contribution to the development of a society, building a firm and enriched foundation for further education and training, and instilling the kinds of attitudes that are in line with development endeavours of both the individual and the nation.

Along with academic subjects, the curricula includes agriculture, woodwork, metalwork, power mechanics, electricity, drawing and design, building construction, home science, business education (accounts, commerce, typing and office practice), art and design, and music. Students are required to take at least one practical subject.

Technical and Vocational Education and Training

Kenya's main aim of the technical and vocational education and training policy is to improve the quality of training at all levels so that the trained manpower can enhance and sustain a high level of economic development which would in turn improve the quality of life by raising the standards of living.

The technical and vocational education and training programmes are designed to achieve the following national aims and also be in line with the recommendations of the Sessional Paper No. 6 of 1988 on Educational and Manpower Training for the Next Decade and Beyond, and that contained in the Policy Document on the 8:4:4 System of Education of 1^st December, 1984:

· To provide increased training opportunities for the increasing number of school-leavers to enable them to be self-supporting.

· To develop practical skills and attitudes which will lead to income-generating activities in the urban and rural areas through self-employment.

· To provide practical education and training skills which are responsive and relevant to Kenya's agricultural, industrial, commercial and economic needs.

· To provide the technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary to enhance the pace of this nation's development.

· To encourage self-employment while at the same time producing skilled artisans, technicians and technologists for both formal and informal sectors at the ratio of 1 technologist to 5 technicians to 30 craftsmen/artisans (1:5:30).

(7) TVET programmes - policy guidelines

The Ministry of Technical Training and Applied Technology was created on 24th March, 1988, and therefore the implementation of the technical and vocational education and training became its responsibility.

In accordance to the government plans to harmonise and rationalise the curricula currently being offered and certificates being awarded by all training institutions in the country, the National Industrial Training Council and the Ministry of Technical Training and Applied Technology organised a seminar on Harmonisation and Rationalisation of Curricula, Examinations and Certification in Technical and Vocational Training from 21-25 November, 1988, at Mombasa Beach Hotel. The aim of the seminar was to discuss the existing technical and vocational training programmes and come up with strategies for harmonisation and rationalising of:

　　· Curricula, examination and certification
　　· Recruitment of trainees
　　· In-plant training (industrial attachment)
　　· Technical teacher training
　　· Jua Kali Development Programmes
　　· Planning and development of training programmes.

The recommendations as listed below, made in the seminar and those of the 1986 committee, laid the foundation of development of TEP. The emphasis was to ensure properly harmonised curricula and certification through KIE and KNEC respectively; for all institutional-based training programmes would substantially assist in maintaining comparable standards of performance, accuracy in determining job levels, and creation of linkages which allow flexibility for both vertical and horizontal mobility of trainees.

(8) Summary of recommendations

1. The Government should streamline all training programmes in order to enhance and sustain high level of economic development.

2. For a balanced economy to exist, there should be a stable base of adequately trained manpower such that the ratio of technologists: technicians, craftsmen and artisan is about 1:10:30.

3. The technical and vocational education and training should form an alternative route through which one can rise to the top.

4. The route to technician Diploma programme should be through the Artisan and Craft orientation programmes. The 8:4:4 should provide linkages on various levels of education and training.

5. The Government should increase training opportunities by making full use of Youth Polytechnics, Technical Training Institutes, National Polytechnics and Public Universities.

6. The Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) and private firms should be encouraged to continue providing training to the youth of this sector.

7. The government should collaborate with industry in curriculum development. In this way, the training system will be harmonised through the use of centrally developed curricula.

8. All curricula for courses outside University should be co-ordinated and approved by the Kenya Institute of Education (KIE). KIE should be strengthened in technical personnel to facilitate co-ordination of these activities.

9. To eliminate the problems of equivalencies and accreditation, the examination and certification outside the University should be the sole responsibility of the Kenya National Examination Council (KNEC). The KNEC should, therefore, be strengthened in the area of skill testing.

10. The Directorate of Industrial Training (DIT) should collaborate with KNEC in the area of skill testing. Therefore, the Regulations/Legislation governing KNEC and DIT should be harmonised in this regard.

11. University Education Programmes (UEP) should be designed to accommodate candidates from both the academic route and technical and vocational education and training route.

12. The Kenya Technical Teacher's College (KTTC) trainees should be exposed to industrial situations if they have to be effective in their instructing/training activity in the TEP programmes. The Industry, Directorate of Industrial Training (DIT), Federation of Kenya Employers (FKE), Kenya Association of Manufacturers (KAM), Trade Unions and the government should be partners in this endeavour.

It will be necessary, therefore, to revise some legislation to facilitate the training, industrial attachment and cost sharing in this exercise.

13. The School Equipment Production Unit (SEPU) should be streamlined in order to produce good quality, low priced equipment and tools to support the 8:4:4 system of education and training. The well-developed Harambee Institutes of Technology should also be used to produce some hand-working tools.

14. Legislation governing Harambee Institutes of Technology should be streamlined if the Ministry responsible for training is to have control over them.

15. The public should be educated to accept vocational education and training as an alternative route for career development. The VOK and Provincial Administration should be used fully for this exercise.

16. The best school-leavers with technical aptitude should be selected for vocational and technical education and training. The timing of selection should be conducted at the same time when Form 1 or University entrants are being selected.

17. The placing of a candidate to the training should be based on interests of the applicant. The interests of a candidate should be obtained from simple aptitude tests. Continuous assessment during Primary and Secondary cycles should give an indication of the candidate's inclination.

18. A scheme of service should be worked out to harmonise remuneration for technically and vocationally trained and academically trained personnel.

(9) Women in TVET

Women comprise approximately 50% of the world population, yet according to the available statistics, nearly 70% of the low-income earners are women.

In Kenya, the present comparative figures in education and training are not very encouraging. In Primary Schools, the population of girls is slightly above 50% and in Secondary Schools it is approximately 40%. In Technical Training Programmes at tertiary level, it is as low as 3%.

In a country geared for industrial take off, it means that the job opportunities for girls and women are going to be seriously affected. However, it is important to note that the programmes introduced under the 8:4:4 system of education are non-discriminatory. The major issues are more of cultural aspects which need to be focused.

(10) Technical teacher training programmes

The effectiveness of any education system is dependent upon quality of teaching and availability of quality teachers at all levels.

The Kenya Technical Teachers College (KTTC) was established to meet the need for a wide range of teachers in technical and business education. KTTC trains teachers for business and technical education in Youth Polytechnics, Secondary Schools, Technical Training Institutes, Institutes of Technology, National Polytechnics, Primary Teachers' Colleges, Colleges for Instructors and Vocational Training Centres.

Since 1989, Kenya Technical Teachers College phased out the initial long-term training programmes of 3 to 4 years and is now mounting 1 to 2 years technical teacher training programmes.

The one-year technical training programmes cater for applicants with technical qualifications and a minimum of two years' work experience in their areas of specialisation. A two-years training programme meant to upgrade the technical skills of trainees while undertaking teacher training is also available.

Technical training programmes offered at the Institutes of Technology and Technical Training Institutes are being expanded and diversified. To meet technical teacher requirements for the new programmes, KTTC has embarked on in-service courses for serving technical teachers in order to upgrade their skills to higher diploma level.

(11) Financing of the TVET

As stated earlier, the economic conditions caused by global economic recession, rapid population growth, adverse weather conditions, influx of refugees and IMF instituted Structural Adjustment Programmes have generated some negative effects on the social system. The adverse economic conditions have affected the efficiency of vocational technical training programmes both internally and externally. It has therefore become a very great challenge to all stakeholders in the technical and vocational education and training to bring out suitable programmes to meet the demands of the economy. The greatest constraints in this endeavour is the scarcity of resources: mainly financial. Financing of technical and vocational education and training programmes has always been shared amongst government, local communities, beneficiaries, religious and private organisations, donors and private persons.

The following are the various sources:

1. State Budgets. The role played by government in financing TVET becomes most necessary, and can never be fully replaced by contributions from other social partners or by the market forces.

2. International Aid. Donor agencies have contributed significantly to the development of technical and vocational training in Kenya. The funds are either disbursed through the Government or Non-Government agencies directly to the training institutions. The funds are used for development purposes especially in the area of buildings, machinery and equipment, as well as for running costs of the institutions.

The apparent lack of sustainability of the donor-started programmes is a serious problem that needs to be addressed. It was thought that donor agencies and institutions should conveniently build sustainability financing components in the programmes so that when the donor withdraws the funding of programmes and projects they should still be able to expand and to maintain the standards in a self-sustainable manner, either through fees, multi-purposes production units or other sustainable forms of fund-raising.

3. Employers Funding. The industrial sector played a leading role in the country in the training of their required manpower especially during the period 1960s - 70s. This was mainly because during this period there was a critical shortage of technically qualified people and each industry had to train to meet its needs. Employees were sponsored by their employers to undertake courses in approved technical training institutions until 1988 when the policy was changed and self-sponsorship was introduced.

4. Training Levy Fund. Employer funding of training is provided for under the Industrial Training Act, Cap 237. The Act provides for the collection of the Industrial Training Fund through a mandatory levy scheme for all employers of more than four people and currently applies to 11 industrial sectors.

5. Beneficiaries Contributions. The beneficiaries pay funds in the form of fees to subsidise their training. In practice, individuals have financed their training through various ways, including accepting reduced wages during training (e.g. the 20% of salary cost sharing in the Civil Service), and the use of family savings or borrowing of money from other sources to pay training fees. The current government policy is to encourage cost sharing in the financing of all aspects of education and training.

The majority of students in the technical training institutions are currently self-sponsored. However, it is worth noting that while the government is encouraging cost sharing, technical training can be expensive especially in view of the flexibility currently required in the labour market. Also, there are some students who cannot afford to pay the cost of training from their own family sources. To promote equity in the access to education and training, it is noted that the government has stated that the current Students' Loan Scheme for University Students will be extended to students in other institutions such as the National Polytechnics. It is thought that this is a commendable move by the government and that the scheme should be conveniently extended to cover other levels of institutions particularly the Institutes of Technology and other approved specialised Industrial Training Centres and Institutions. In this way industrial training will be sufficiently geared towards meeting the professional/technical manpower required for sustainable industrialisation in the country.

(12) Conclusion and future focus

Kenya's TVET is comparatively developed and targeted at a wider cross-section of the population including the Informal Sector. The current strategies and policy guidelines for the provision of TVET at all levels is a clear evidence of ability to aim for a strong co-ordinated, well-planned and managed training system which is flexible enough to respond to the needs of society, industry, business and, to a larger extent, to the individual in the Jua Kali Sector.

Numerous issues linked up with training such as expansion of training to increase the training opportunities, the provision of adequate financial and human resources, creation of employment for both male and female, and the promotion of the internal sector as a major source of employment for our youth are some of the issues which need to be continuously streamlined and rationalised.

As an effort of trying to meet the nation's development targets including that of job creation to the tune of 4.5 million by the year 2010, the training has to continue being made relevant to cater for the rapid scientific and technological development necessary to transform the Kenyan society each day.

The focus for now and future is to mobilise the available human and financial resources to build a capability sufficient to enable Kenya to achieve her development targets. The policies the government has put in place need to be promoted and enhanced. These include: development of result oriented training policies to stimulate stakeholders' participation in training; the cost sharing strategies; means to sustain the institutional infrastructure and programmes; institutional capacity building - just to mention a few. All these challenges need support from our stakeholders in education and training.

5.2 A Position Paper by Professor B. Wanjala KERRE

(1) Overview

Introduction

1. TVET well acknowledge as crucial to notional development within the world of work:

· UNESCO Convention on Technical and Vocational Education.
· UNEVOC activities,
· World Bank Education Policies,
· National Policies.

2. This paper is meant to sensitise policy makers to TVET beyond the formal sector.

Role of TVET

· Individual growth - knowledge, skills and attitudes

· Preparation for the World of Work,

· National development - human resources, productivity etc.,

· Advancement of Peace - UN Development Report of 1994 recognises peace as the result of freedom from fear of social insecurity, and freedom from economic insecurity, want.

TVET in modern systems

Legislation - Education Acts shortly after political independence: concerns General Education of VOC; training.

Administration

Policy frameworks mainly in place. However, administrative and delivery mechanisms varied; common trends:

· Formal education - schools & colleges,
· Vocational training - UTLS,
· Non-formal and informal training,
· Problem - lack of standards,
· No competitive salaries,
· Need for harmonisation.

Financing

· TVET institutions comparatively more expensive,
· New cost sharing initiative (Senegal Caf?de Voire, Madagascar, Kenya, etc.),
· All stakeholders to cost share.

Curriculum

· TVET goals and objectives - similar across the board. This addressed acquisition of knowledge and skills for productive employment,

· Offered at primary, secondary and tertiary levels, neglected occupational interests,

· However, most TVET programmes still heavily western oriented, outdated due to new technologies, etc.,

· Trends - broad-based curriculum addressing the needs of scientific and technological sociality.

Major challenges

· Lower status syndrome,
· Dwindling enrolments in formal TVET,
· Changes in workplace - technology, new productivity,
· Relevance to world of work,
· Equity and access - most still kept out.

Broadening the scope of TVET beyond the formal sector

There is a need for multiple roles.

The Government's role

· Provide effective policy frameworks to guide TVET activities,
· Establish effective delivery patterns and evaluate for intended purposes,
· Harmonise TVET administration and management activities.

The role of enterprises & NGOs

· Involve enterprise and NGOs - curriculum matters, policy formulation,
· Introduce education and training levies, rebates etc.

TVET - Institutions

Existing TVET programmes and materials are already past history - need for close collaboration with ministries to forge common stands.

Collaboration/partnership with higher institutions

This may be activated through:

· Research and development activities,
· Exhibitions, trade fares,
· Consultancies.

Conclusion

· TVET is critical to both individual and national development,

· Present legal frameworks and legislation have broad definition that does not sufficiently guide policy framework in planning, administration and implementation of TVET programmes,

· The majority of those who join the informal sector have limited opportunities to benefit from TVET,

· Governments should once and for all address the critical issues of harmonising TVET planning, development and implementation by establishing mechanisms to open up more access to TVET for all. This will need the collaboration of all the stakeholders including enterprise, TVET institutions, NGOs, unions, employer federations and governments.

(2) Introduction

It is no longer debatable whether or not technical and vocational education is an imperative in the preparation of human resources for national development.

The adoption of the Convention on Technical and Vocational Education by UNESCO's member states at the 25th session of UNESCO's General Conference in 1989 and the current UNESCO activities aimed at strengthening the development and implementation of TVET clearly underscore the important role this aspect of education and training plays in the life of any country.

This subregional Seminar is critical in helping member states derive policy definitions that embrace the expanded vision of TVET beyond the current offerings in the formal education sector.

For this purpose, it is important to recall Article 1 of the Convention which spells out the definition of TVET as:

“referring to all forms and levels of the education process involving, in addition to general knowledge, the study of technological and related science and the acquisition of practical skills, know-how, attitude and understanding relating to occupations in the various sectors of economic and social life” (UNESCO, 1989, Article 1).

We shall therefore critically examine the role of TVET in national development, its place in the formal school curriculum and in the informal sector, and the challenges facing TVET in the informal sector and some future prospects.

(3) The role of TVET in national development

Technical and Vocational education serves the individual by imparting knowledge, skills and attitudes that will be used to procure and sustain gainful employment. Society equally benefits from such human resources development and it is responsible for increased Gross National Product.

The Human Resources Development Report of 1994 (UNDP, 1994, p3) underscores the United Nation's lifelong commitment to engage in a battle for peace on two fronts: the security front (to secure freedom from fear) and the economic and social front (to secure victory from want). The latter is inextricably linked to job security where TVET is a major contributor.

Evidence from World Bank Studies (World Bank, 1988; 1991) and case studies of TVET in the African region (Kerre, 1995) clearly point out that investment in TVET is worthwhile no matter what the economic status of the country may be.

Further evidence from the newly-industrialising countries show that TVET is largely responsible for providing a pool of skilled human resources essential for such critical sectors of the economy as agriculture, manufacturing, construction, communication, transportation and commerce.

With increasing technological development and liberalised world markets, a country's technical and vocational training system will increasingly become decisive in determining the competitive strength and level of development of its economy.

Ever since independence, most African countries have had to grapple with the problem of “too many people looking for jobs and too many jobs going unfilled”. While there is a growing number of the unemployed among the educated, there is a persistent shortage of human resources with the technical skills required in various sectors of the economy.

There is a mismatch between available technical human resources and the type of employment opportunities available in the world of work.

(4) TVET in the formal education systems in Africa

In order to appreciate the level of development in TVET and the commitment given by various African governments, an overview of legislation, administration, financing and the challenge encountered may be useful.

Legislation of TVET

The importance accorded to TVET in a given society is reflected in the existing legislation establishing it. It can be observed that legislation dealing with technical and vocational education in most countries came into effect much later after the promulgation of the Education Acts. Technical and vocational education may have been mentioned as was the case with the Ashby Commission of Nigeria in 1960 and in the Kenya Education Act in 1968, but effective policy implementation was to come much later on as revealed in case studies below (UNESCO-BREDA, 1995).

Vocational training, however, was well recognised as proven by the establishment of Vocational Training Acts in Ghana (1970), Kenya (1971), Uganda (1979), Swaziland (1982), Zimbabwe (1978). There was a clear demarcation between vocational education and vocational training then. The latter was the focus of the Vocational Training Acts.

After it became obvious that the educational systems adapted from the colonial regimes were mainly academic leading to mass production of unemployable school-leavers, various changes were introduced as each country reviewed and reformed its educational system. Most of these changes came in the 1980s and the 1990s.

In Nigeria, for example, the National Policy on Education of 1981, effected in 1982, laid emphasis on technical and vocational education in the restructured (6-3-3-4) school system.

In Kenya, a series of educational review commissions culminated into the establishment of the 8-4-4 school system in 1985. The curriculum was vocationalised and technical and vocational education was expanded beyond the confines of the formal school curriculum. A new Ministry responsible for post school vocational education and training was established in 1988 and a new vision for TVET articulated in a Sessional Paper on Manpower Development (Kenya, 1988).

In 1984, Zimbabwe replaced the 1978 Vocational Training Act with a Human Resources Planning and Development Act. The Act moved to the Ministry of Higher Education in 1988 from the Ministry of Labour Planning and Social Services. In 1994, the Act was revised to include the Administration of Teacher Education.

Ghana's constitution of 1992, through articles 25 and 38, reviewed its education system and revitalised technical and vocational education. This was further complemented by the Polytechnic Law in 1992 which established polytechnics as tertiary institutions.

Swaziland set up a National Educational Review Committee which established a Special Committee in 1990 to study pre-vocational education. As a result of the committee findings, the government has proposed the provision of a diversified, competency-based curriculum to expose students to vocational subjects in agriculture, home economics, business and technical studies.

In Uganda, an Education Review Commission submitted to the government a White Paper on technical and vocational education in 1992. The paper called for the restructuring of education to include technical and vocational education from primary to tertiary levels. It called for the integration of TVET and business education as well as equipping technical training institutions with modern tools and equipment.

An analysis of the evolution of education in Congo from the 1960s underlines important steps toward the implementation of an educational policy with more or less well-defined features. All of these characteristics depict the will to promote democratic access to education.

In 1965, all schools were nationalised and put under state control. From 1970 to 1977 the background document "l'Ecole du Peuple" was produced.

In 1991 "la Confence Nationale Souveraine" ("the Sovereign National Conference") was held which confirmed the failure of "l'Ecole du peuple" ("the Peoples School") and initiated several steps to reorient the educational system. These were:

· The promotion of technical and professional training by reforming the programme and adapting it to the socio-economic context,

· The active participation of socio-economic partners in the development of education,

· The creation of a state secretariat for technical training.

In Senegal, The Orientation Law of National Education of 1971 was the first law on national education and training in the country.

It was further reviewed and adopted in February, 1991. This law in