Quotation



The hypothesis upon which formal vocational education everywhere is premised is that it results in an economic return on investment to the learner and to society. This hypothesis can also take the form that vocational education reduces unemployment and leads to productivity. In the third world countries, the hypotheses links vocational education with economic development (Lewis, 1990, p. 1)

Preface




The purpose of this document was to examine the economic and social context of vocational and technical education, identify constraints on vocational and technical education, and suggest improvements to vocational and technical education in the light of prevailing economic potentials and challenges in Swaziland. In an attempt to address these areas, the following were highlighted:

· The economy and labor market relevance of education,

· Small business development and entrepreneurship education,

· Constraints to small business development,

· National policy on vocational and technical education, and

· Profiles of selected major formal and nonformal vocational and technical education institutions and programs, including vocational special needs education.

The procedures employed in the compilation of this document included on-site visitations of the institutions and personal interviews, and an extensive review of the literature, research, and commissioned studies with a focus on vocational and technical education (see reference section). We will hasten to state that this document does not pretend to either present answers or prescribe policy. However, it does attempt to address areas which appear to hold the key to fostering and promoting the role of vocational and technical education in socioeconomic development which may result in an economic return on investment to the learner and society.

Comfort B. S. Mndebele is a lecturer at the University of Swaziland, but is currently completing (May, 1994) a Ph.D. degree in vocational and technical education (major) and counselor education (minor) at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (USA). Leonard B. Lukhele is the Principal of the Swaziland College of Technology who has served on several commissioned studies in vocational and technical education in Swaziland. The authors are grateful to those who participated in this study.

The views expressed in this document are those of the authors and do not represent those of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

Background of Vocational and Technical Education in Swaziland



Vocationalization policies in Swaziland are directed toward achieving greater labor market relevance of education and better articulation between the content of schooling and subsequent application of acquired skills in the world of work. The contemporary thrust to curriculum vocationalization is perceived as the potential for providing the pathway to wage employment or self-employment for the majority of youth who are not college or university bound. Vocational technical education has the task of equipping the youth and school leaver with the competencies called for by the labor market. Psacharopolous (1985) succinctly articulated that," It is commonly thought that introducing a vocational element in the secondary school curriculum, especially in developing countries, is conducive to economic development" (p. 589). Such a thrust and focus represent an educational reform which in turn suggests a new educational mission for Swaziland in respect of teaching the "practical arts" studies. This educational reform implies a mission whose goal is that all students, as well as out-of-school youth and adults, be prepared by the educational system, formal and nonformal, for wage employment or self-employment. Equipping students, out-of-school youth, and adults with appropriate knowledge, skills, and attitudes has the potential of increasing labor productivity and economic performance. Furthermore, such an educational mission acknowledges that the educational enterprise is not separate from the world of work. Indeed, the time is now to bring the two worlds of work and education together into one (Mndebele, 1993).

In the last decade and a half, reviews of research, literature, and commissioned studies in the education sector of Swaziland have continued to point to the urgent need to address the issue of the relevance of education to the Swaziland economic and sociopolitical context (Atherton, Duff, & Gailer, 1981; National Education Review Commission [NERCOM], 1985; Vocational Training Branch International Labor Office, 1986; Special Committee to Study Pre-Vocational Education, 1990). Highlights of some of the more recent and relevant education sector reviews and commissioned studies findings related to the need for a vocationalized secondary school curriculum within formal education as well as the need for nonformal vocational education, and the critical need for an effective vocational teacher education program in Swaziland schools follow.

In the Education and Training Sector Review report on Swaziland by Atherton, Duff and Gailer (1981), a recommendation was made for the "expansion of secondary level education closely tied to employment possibilities" (p. v). Furthermore, they predicted and warned against unemployment of school leavers. They called for adding training in a wide range of technical and vocational education, diversified activities, and alternative programs of study to the formal academic education system of a colonial heritage and legacy.

The National Education Review Commission (NERCOM), appointed in 1985 to isolate the main problems associated with the relevance of education to the national manpower and economic needs, recommended the establishment of alternative education such as vocational technical education. Such an education would link education to the world of work, and schools and schooling to business and industry (Mndebele, 1993). Such a diversification of the secondary curriculum would cater to the different aptitudes and talents of students with the selection of subjects in the schools offering suitable choices of academic and vocational subjects.

Educansult Limited (1992) clearly indicated the need for a study whose findings will identify the professional vocational technical education competencies needed by teachers to enable them to deliver a school vocational technical curriculum, and Mndebele's (1993) study focuses on the development of these competencies. Furthermore, the study expressed that teacher training programs at the University of Swaziland (UNISWA) and the Swaziland College of Technology (SCOT) must be significantly expanded to provide vocational technical teacher education for secondary and primary teachers for the vocational areas of Business and Commerce, Home Economics/Hospitality and Technical Subjects. The launching of a vocational secondary school curriculum entails the participation and involvement of business and industry in terms of curriculum input, work-based learning experiences for students, and an advisory responsibility (Mndebele, 1993). Swaziland with an economy characterized by specialization, openness and a freemarket has the potential for a successful vocational education curriculum.

Analysis of the Economic and Social Context of Vocational and Technical Education

The Economy and Labor Market Relevance of Education: An Overview

The Swaziland political rhetoric of labor market relevance of the secondary education curriculum remains a major item of the Government's educational agenda. Swaziland, as a developing nation with an economy characterized by specialization, openness, free-market and dualism, has curriculum vocationalization policies that are a quest for greater labor market relevance of education. Such a quest may provide for better articulation between the content of schooling and subsequent application of acquired knowledge, skills, and attitudes in the world of work.

The economy of Swaziland comprises four defining characteristics (Capricorn Africa Economic Associates, 1990):

· A specialized economy in which much of the activity is either directly related to or depends on the goods produced by the agriculture or forestry sector.

· An open economy in that the small scale of its domestic market means that much of what is produced locally finds its way into external markets.

· A free-market economy in which the direct role of the government in the economy is much limited.

· A dualistic economy with a modern sector (where most of the production for the market originates) and a traditional sector (where most of the people produce for their own consumption). (p. 3)

The modern sector of the economy of Swaziland in contrast to the traditional sector can further be categorized into two distinct sectors, namely: the private sector of the large firms and the small firms, and the small business enterprises. The small business enterprises link themselves to entrepreneurship education by the inherent nature of their character and activities. Entrepreneurship education is a program that prepares individuals to undertake the formation and operation of small business enterprises for self-employment, whereas the purpose of vocational technical education is the preparation for employment. Entrepreneurship activity is a by-product of the vocational education experience leading to self-employment for those who create their own employment. Hence, small business management/entrepreneurship has strong implications for vocational education in respect to smaller firms/businesses and their development in Swaziland.

Small businesses, which are within the private sector of the Swaziland economy, are characterized by the following features (Capricorn Africa Economic Associates, 1990) which link them to vocational education and entrepreneurship education:

· Ownership. The majority of the small business enterprises are owned by Swazi women.

· Labor mix. Smaller businesses are more likely to employ female labor. They are also more likely to employ Swazis in all skill areas than are the large businesses.

· Experience. In general smaller businesses have less business management experience than the larger businesses.

· Marketing and demand. Smaller businesses have difficulty improving sales volume primarily due to difficulty in getting products to the market, and a lack of adequate market information.

· Access to production inputs. Small businesses are more likely to experience difficulty in accessing raw materials due to difficulty in obtaining financing/credit and transport.

· Organizational Infrastructure. In general, small businesses do not belong to business associations, and there is very little contact between large businesses and small ones. (p. 1)

Swaziland has a population of 681,059 with an average annual growth of 3.3%. Figure 1 shows the projected population growth for Swaziland and Table 1 shows population by region. According to United Nations' estimates and The Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) (1991/92), 82% of the primary school age group were enrolled in 1989 and 43% of secondary school age group with some 4% of 20-24 year were undergoing some postsecondary education. In Swaziland, education is the largest element of recurrent government expenditure with its share of the total budget estimated at 33% in the 1991/92 budget.

The pivotal sector of the country's economy is agriculture. However, manufacturing has the highest gross domestic product growth rate. Swaziland is heavily dependent on the agroindustrial production of sugar and timber. Land tenure and use in Swaziland remains a big issue. Under the prevailing system of land distribution, some 45% is held on a freehold basis as Individual Tenure Farm (ITF) sometimes called Title Deed Land [TDL], and the remainder "held in trust" by the Monarch is controlled and allocated by chiefs according to traditional arrangements (The Economist Intelligence Unit, 1991/92).

Swazi Nation Land (SNL) in 1986 accommodated 69.5% of the country's population although most of the people are engaged in some kind of wage employment somewhere else. About 60% of the country's cropland covers production on SNL where maize and cotton are the main crops grown. About 75% of families on SNL are partially dependent on wage income, and about 65% own cattle (The Economist Intelligence Unit, 1991/92).

Source: J. G. C. Bleaker: "Fertility, Mortality and Population Growth in Swaziland, 1990" cited in Educansult Limited, 1992

Table 1.

Population by Region - Swaziland

Population by Region	1976	1986	Average annual growth rate (%)
Manzini	139,538	192,596	3.3
Hhohho	133,493	178,936	3.0
Shiselweni	117,172	155,569	2.9
Lubombo	104,331	153,958	4.0
Total	494,534	681,059	3.3

Sources: Department of Economic Planning and Statistics; CSO, Annual Statistical Bulletin (cited in The Economist Intelligence Unit, 1991-92)

About 25% of the country's economically active population is employed in the modern wage sector (Capricorn Africa Economic Associates, 1990), and the 75% remaining are subsistence farmers on Swazi Nation Land (SNL). Figure 2 shows the distribution of employment in Swaziland, whereas Figure 3 indicates employment by economic sector. However, it must be noted that both urban and rural dwellers in Swaziland actively participate in the money economy. Table 2 portrays formal and informal estimates of paid employment.

While Swaziland has a surplus of unskilled and semiskilled labor, there are acute shortages of technical, managerial and supervisory skilled personnel. Although the abundant labor pool ranges from unskilled to semiskilled, it is literate, numerate and thus, can be skilled. A labor pool of this mix has strong implications for vocational technical education at the secondary/high school and postsecondary education levels. Figure 4 is a comparison between the forecast of skilled job opportunities and projected output of the educational system by skill groups. To this end, the Economic Planning Office, (1993/98, pp. 116-117) expressed that there exists a demand/supply disequilibrium with respect to trained people and the type of available employment opportunities. Thus, manual workers and those qualified for clerical positions will be oversupplied while scientific and technical professionals will be undersupplied during the coming decade.

Small Business Development and Entrepreneurship Education

The social and economic environment in Swaziland, with respect to vocational technical education, calls for a creation of a full partnership between prospective employers and educators in preparing individuals for the workforce. This is true for those looking forward to wage employment. However, for those who may finish high school with little hope for wage employment or postsecondary education, and yet have a desire for self-employment, then the involvement of small businesses in formal and nonformal vocational technical education programs becomes an absolute necessity. Vocational education, formal and nonformal, can expand its horizons to provide new options for students and thus, contribute to increased productivity through involvement in entrepreneurship education. If entrepreneurship education is to permeate all of education, this suggests that vocational education/teacher training efforts should include preparation in the concepts and practices of entrepreneurship education. There is a need to integrate vocational education and entrepreneurship education.

Swaziland has a limited industrial base with 25% of the country's economically active population employed in the modern wage sector (see Figure 2). With a limited industrial base, entrepreneurship education and self-employment should be presented to students as a career option. Processes for entrepreneurship should be initiated at both the secondary and postsecondary education levels. For out-of-school youth who are unemployed, thus, at risk, and adults, nonformal vocational technical education should be strengthened The term entrepreneurship describes individuals who have economic opportunities for themselves and others through their ability to look beyond what presently exists within the job opportunity arena.

Source: CSO - Employment and Wages Survey, 1986 (cited in Capricorn Africa Economic Associates, 1990).

Source: Kingdom of Swaziland: Manpower, Education, and Training, International Labor Office, 1986 (cited in Educansult Limited, 1992).

Table 2.

Estimates of Paid Employment

		1985	1986	1987	1988	1989a	1990b
Formal employment of which:		72,884	76,405	82,744	87,888	91,531	95,951
	Private Sector	50,533	52,970	58,313	61,751	64,452	68,553
	Public Sector	22,351	23,435	24,431	26,137	27,079	27,398
Informal Employment		12,341	12,546	12,800	13,100	13,493	13,898
Totals		85,225	88,951	95,544	100,988	104,374	109,849

^a Revised.
^b Provisional

Source: Department of Economic Planning and Statistics (cited in The Economist Intelligence Unit, 1991-92).

Source: Educansult Limited, 1992.

Entrepreneurs create "new" businesses, and can also reshape jobs into positions which are more productive. The need to expand abilities of individuals to analyze their own generic occupational skills to create and expand the present Swaziland economic base is critical for a sustainable economic growth.

Swaziland has a free market economy thus, creating a business environment favorable for small business development and entrepreneurship. Small businesses have a major role to play in responding to the problem of youth unemployment. Small business enterprises and entrepreneurship as a by-product of the vocational education experience have been perceived as having a business environment conducive to their operations and development in addressing the problem of youth unemployment. Some of the potentials which Swaziland offers to foster and facilitate small business development and entrepreneurial business activity for growth and expansion in Swaziland are briefly discussed below (Capricon Africa Economic Associates, 1990):

Political Stability. Swaziland has enjoyed peace and stability for an extended period of time. Furthermore, Swazi people are a single ethnic group posing no concern for tribal rivalry. Such an environment is conducive for business activity to thrive.

Access to a Network of Services and Markets. Because of its proximity to South Africa, Swaziland presents a business environment that has a wide variety of services and markets that are easier and less expensive to access relative to business environments of some other African countries.

Access to an Educated and Inexpensive Labor Force. The labor pool in Swaziland is better than functionally literate, numerate and able to communicate in English. Wages are relatively reasonable in Swaziland, thus, enabling small business entrepreneurs to engage such a labor force in their enterprises.

Availability of Small Business Support Organizations. In Swaziland four bodies represent employers who are engaged in commercial and economic activities, namely: the Federation of Swaziland Employers; the Swaziland Chamber of Commerce and Industry; the Commercial Amadoda; and Sibakho. Small business enterprises, which are primarily owned by Swazis, are represented by Commercial Amadoda to a lesser extent and Sibakho to a greater extent. Although these business associations represent the interests of small business enterprises, they have received low effectiveness ratings from their constituents (Capricorn Africa Economic Associates, 1990). Development assistance organizations and non-governmental organizations (NGO's) support small business enterprises. Swazi Business Growth Trust (SBGT) serves the purpose of boosting Swazi owned businesses which usually fall under small business enterprises.

Public Policy to Assist Small Business Development. The Swaziland Government has initiated development assistance programs for the purpose of promoting small business development. In the recent past, the Government has begun to delineate large scale businesses as distinct from small businesses in character, services offered, and target population. Such a distinction is critical to the success of the small businesses; for competition is eliminated between the large scale business owners and small business entrepreneurs.

Constraints to Small Business Development

There are constraints to the development of small businesses in Swaziland. These pose as bottlenecks in the promotion and development of small business enterprises. These enterprises, by the nature of their activities, link themselves to entrepreneurship education, a by-product of the vocational education experience.

Lack of Access to Credit. With all the Government enthusiasm and political rhetoric in support of small business development, the financial assistance of credit to small business enterprises does not reach the small enterprise business person who needs it the most. Many to most of them lack adequate security as collateral. Small business entrepreneurs are also of the opinion that formal banking institutions are not interested in their size of operations; this perception has an element of truth in it. However, the Business Management Extension Program (BMEP) serves in an advisory capacity, and the Asikhutulisane Credit Society caters to the credit needs of small business entrepreneurs though spread rather thinly because of the numbers of such entrepreneurs needing credit.

Land Tenure System. Land ownership in Swaziland is primarily divided into two categories, namely: Title Deed Land (TDL); and Swazi Nation Land (SNL). Swazi National Land is not developed to its full potential, hence lagging behind Title Deed Land in productivity and output. Furthermore, it cannot be used as collateral thus, posing a constraint for those with vocational agriculture skills/training wishing to obtain credit to farm on Swazi Nation Land. Commercial agricultural production for small business entrepreneurs is indeed constrained by the land tenure and use in Swaziland. Small farm business entrepreneurs with vocational agricultural skills training are left with cattle as collateral, which encourages the expansion of livestock sizes contrary to the Ministry of Agriculture's destocking policies. This scenario is a good example of a Catch-22, a no-win situation for the prospective entrepreneur.

Lack of Business Managerial Skills. Small business entrepreneurs not only lack business management skills, but also tend to show very little interest in acquiring accounting, marketing, and financial management skills. Their failure to follow basic and sound business management practices often affects the growth of their businesses. These entrepreneurs, because of their small size of operation, cannot afford the services of an accountant or bookkeeper.

National Policy on Vocational and Technical Education

As a matter of policy, the Ministry of Education has selected priority project components with respect to spearheading vocational technical/pre-vocational education in line with the educational reforms and restructuring underway. Such structural adjustments in the education sector of Swaziland are a response to the public outcry for lack of relevance of schooling and tertiary education to the world of work (Mndebele, 1993). For many years in Swaziland education reform efforts have focused on toughening academic requirements for students. The goal was to prepare students for higher education. Then in 1985 the National Education Review Commission (NERCOM) released their report which pointed the need to diversify the primary and secondary school curricula to strongly emphasize vocational and technical subjects including agriculture, business, home economics, and technical trade skills. This further pointed out the need to maintain a close link between educational planning, and economic and manpower planning by the Swaziland government.

The NERCOM study marked a turning point in the education reform movement. It spawned a series of reports stating that schools should prepare students for the world of work as well as college/university. Hence, leaders in education, business and politics have trumpeted the restructuring of schools as a key to (Special Committee to Study Pre-Vocational Education, 1990):

· Harmonizing manpower demands with education;
· Improving occupational-educational linkages;
· Confronting the problems of the educated unemployed; and
· Contributing to rural transformation in Swaziland.

These structural adjustments call for vocational technical competencies that prepare students as the potential workforce for the existing and future workplace. Among the competencies implied are:

· Basic skills in reading, writing, mathematics, speaking and listening;
· Thinking skills of problem solving and decision making;
· Personal qualities of responsibility and integrity
· Resources allocation of people, data, and things;
· Interpersonal skills of working with others in harmony; and
· Understanding and utilization of information technology.

The national education policy of the Ministry of Education (MOE), as it relates to vocational technical education in Swaziland, places focus on the diversification of the curriculum particularly at the primary and secondary school levels. Below are excerpts from the Economic Planning Office (1993/96). These extracts reflect the Government's policy as it pertains to vocational technical education.

In order to make the most of pupils' diverse talents and to enable them to make appropriate choices for higher education and careers, a wider curriculum will be offered in the proposed nine-year basic education program. Efforts have been made with donor assistance to diversify the curriculum at the lower grades, but less progress has been made at higher grades. As at the end of 1992, approximately half of all primary schools were offering the diversified curricula. This exposes students to a number of practical subjects such as agriculture, home science, technical and commercial studies. (p.114)

After the seven years of primary (elementary) education, the secondary level offers both academic and practical subjects under the present system. The proposed pre-vocational [vocational] education program will offer academic and pre-vocational [vocational] courses. The prevocational [vocational] education program will begin with exploratory activities in practical subjects at Grades 8, 9 and 10 and then gradually narrow the focus in Grades 11 and 12 to more specific skills for distinct vocations. This program will include a combination of academic subjects and performance activities geared towards enabling the high school graduates to enter the job market at a basic level or to initiate a self-directed enterprise [entrepreneurship]. The program should further enable students to proceed to vocations and higher technical education closely reflecting the changing conditions and demands of the labor market. (p. 115)

A major objective is to diversify the curriculum at the secondary level and increase the number of schools offering practical subjects. The School's Agriculture Program which is aimed at teaching the value of sound agricultural practices, has already started on a pilot basis... in a few selected schools such as Mpaka, Ngwane High Schools. During the Plan period (1993/98), it will be expanded to 16 pilot high schools in the 4 Regions. This type of education is intended for children for whom basic education is likely to be the terminal point. The purpose is to increase their skills and potential when they enter the labor market. (pp. 115-116)

In order to prepare school leavers better for opportunities in the labor market or self-employment, Government decided to offer an alternative to academic education and established Vocational and Commercial Training Institute - Matsapha (VOCTIM) to teach technical and vocational subjects. The policy of this institute is to survey the needs of industries and mount courses to satisfy these needs. (p. 117)

All available information suggests that there exists a demand/supply disequilibrium with respect to trained people and the type of available employment opportunities. The disequilibrium varies according to level and type of skill. Thus, manual workers and those qualified for clerical positions will be oversupplied while scientific and technical professionals will be undersupplied during the coming decade. In order to offset this problem, Government is committed to an appropriate expansion of postsecondary facilities which includes both an expansion of University facilities to accommodate the more highly qualified Swazi school leavers, and the creation of opportunities to pursue more technical and vocational subjects through institutions such as Vocational and Commercial Training Institute-Matsapha and Swaziland College of Technology. (pp. 116-117)

The Industrial and Vocational Training Act enacted in 1982 established the Directorate for Industrial and Vocational Training. The Act, when it was enacted, had the following as its major objectives:

· Promotion of industrial and vocational training in Swaziland;

· Dissuasion of employers from employing apprentices and trainees as a form of open-ended cheap labor;

· Establishment of a training levy system which would provide funds for the promotion of industrial and vocational training; and

· Introduction of a regulatory system for the proper monitoring and control of industrial and vocational training in Swaziland.

The Industrial and Vocational Training Board is an advisory body whose main function is to advise the Minister of Labor on policy matters pertaining to vocational/technical training. With its limited executive authority, the Board's decisions are implemented through the office of the Director. The directorate is the Industrial and Vocational Training Board's executive arm providing for the Board's administrative needs. The Chairman of the Board, one representative of all the vocational/technical training institutions in Swaziland, a Ministry of Labor representative, and about five representatives from the business and industry sector constitute the Industrial and Vocational Training Board. The Director who serves as the secretary of the Board, is responsible for the day-to-day operations of the Directorate. Linked to the Board, through the office of the Director, are Advisory Committees that service the Board, whose roles are provided for in the Act.

Formal Vocational and Technical Education

Background

The impetus for vocationalization of the secondary and postsecondary curricula in Swaziland emerged as a socioeconomic response to lack of linkages between education and occupations in the workplace. Vocational technical education drives in Swaziland are a quest for greater labor market relevance of education for better articulation between the content of schooling and subsequent application of acquired skills, attitudes, and knowledge (competencies) in the world of work (Mndebele, 1993). Subsequently, due to concern about the labor market relevance of education, the Swaziland Government through the Ministry of Education (MOE) appointed a National Education Review Commission (NERCOM) in 1985. As pertaining vocational technical education, the purpose of the Commission was to isolate the main problems associated with the relevance of education to the national needs.

Such a diversification of the curriculum, it was envisaged, would cater to the different aptitudes and talents of students with the selection of subjects in the schools subject offerings suitable for choices of general (academic) and vocational technical subjects. The NERCOM findings constituted the basis for the recent educational reforms and developments in the Swaziland vocational technical education subsector of the education sector.

Following up to the NERCOM report findings, and as a strategy for the implementation of some of the NERCOM recommendations, the Ministry of Education appointed the Special Committee to Study Pre-Vocational Education (1990).

In the main, the terms of reference for the committee were (1990):

· To define the problems presently concerning pre-vocational/vocational education placing these in the wider context of the mutual adaptation of the educational system and the macro-economic environment.

· To define the relationships between school vocational technical education in the context of the development of a broader curriculum and greater degree of preparation of students for the world of work.

· To review (a) the primary and secondary school curricula; (b) curricula of vocational technical institutions; and (c) the school curriculum and how it relates to vocational technical institutions.

· To recommend structures for the delivery of a vocational/pre-vocational education program which will fit into the existing educational system.

· To provide details of resource requirements in order to implement the recommended program. (p. 1)

In launching a vocational/pre-vocational education program in Swaziland, certain requirements in respect of structures, facilities, equipment and personnel were identified and recommended by the Committee. Identified as some of the requirements for starting a vocational/pre-vocational education were the following (Special Committee to Study Pre-Vocational Education, 1990):

· Conducting needs assessment studies with industry, the informal sector and communities to determine the demand for vocational/pre-vocational education;

· Undertaking a feasibility study and determining the level of training;

· Working out a network of specific subjects that should constitute a cluster of competencies compatible with the school curriculum;

· Developing curricula and teaching materials;

· Developing a scheme for teacher training to upgrade experienced teachers in specific competencies;

· Determining the size and scope of workshop facilities and equipment;

· Conducting a school mapping exercise to determine which school should feed specific vocational institutions, and which skills shall be taught in each institution; and

· Developing a plan of operation for follow-up programs in the private sector and the public sector. (p. 15)

In fulfilling its commitment to strengthening the educational system to better serve the needs of students and the economy, and in pursuit of the recommendations of the Special Committee to Study Pre-Vocational Education (1990), the Government of Swaziland instituted a Project Preparation Study, funded by the African Development Bank in 1991/92. The purpose of the study was to examine a number of potential projects for future funding by the Bank. In the context of educational and economic imperatives, the potential project areas appraised and prioritized were (Educansult Limited, 1992):

· Procurement of equipment and facility construction for 16 pilot secondary schools to support the introduction of the vocational/pre-vocational curriculum;

· Strengthening the National Curriculum Center to provide for curriculum and learning materials development for the vocational/pre-vocational program implementation;

· Technical assistance to support the implementation of in-service teacher training programs at the University of Swaziland and the College of Technology (SCOT) for training vocational and technical teachers in the delivery of vocational and technical education instruction; and

· Identification of the career and life paths of graduates of the vocational/pre-vocational program for purposes of determining whether the objectives of the program were achieved.

In order to make the most of pupils' diverse talents, and to enable them to make appropriate choices for higher education and careers, the Government is proposing a diversified curriculum to expose students to a number of vocational subjects such as vocational agriculture, vocational home economics, vocational business, and vocational technical studies. Tables 3 and 4 present the numbers of pupils and teachers in the primary and secondary schools, respectively.

Table 3.

Number of Pupils and Teachers in Primary Schools, 1986-1996

Year	Number of Pupils	Number of Teachers	Pupil/Teacher Ratio
1986	142,206	4,290	33.1
1987	147,743	4,462	33.1
1988	152,895	4,665	33.1
1989	157,345	4,890	32.1
1990	166,454	5.083	33.1
1991	172,908	5.584	30.9
1992*	176,248	5,852	30.1
1993*	181,359	6,133	29.6
1994*	186,618	6,427	29.0
1995*	192,030	6,737	28.5
1996*	197,599	7,059	28.0

Source: Economic Planning Office, 1993 (Ministry of Education *Projections)

Table 4.

Number of Pupils and Teachers in Secondary Schools, 1986-1996

Year	Number of Pupils	Number of Teachers	Pupil/Teacher Ratio
1986	30,489	1,617	18.9
1987	32,914	1,760	18.7
1988	32,942	1,906	17.3
1989	41,881	2,088	20.1
1990	41,128	2,213	18.9
1991	42,405	2,430	17.5
1992*	47,259	2,668	17.7
1993*	50,662	2,927	17.3
1994*	54,310	3,211	16.9
1995*	58,220	3,523	16.5
1996*	62,412	3,865	16.1

Source: Economic Planning Office, 1993 (Ministry of Education *Projections)

Organization and Structure

Organization and structure of vocational/pre-vocational technical education within the formal school system is composed of four service/program areas, namely, Agriculture, Commerce, Home Economics and Technical Studies. These program areas are deemed appropriate on the basis of national manpower needs, and pedagogical and cost factors. With respect to the agriculture area, Swaziland has an agroindustrial based economy, thus agriculture remains a pivotal sector of the country's economy. Commerce is intended to provide students with accounting and business experiences as well as entrepreneurial (small business management) skills. Home Economics which is inclusive of textile, hospitality, and related technologies is an area that provides students skills to be translated to a commercial context. Finally, the technical studies area which is inclusive of woodwork, metal work, and technical drawing provides students with skills in design and construction technology.

Though these four areas are currently offered in selected secondary schools, they are not taught as vocational subjects, but rather as practical subjects; thus, they are not linked to job opportunities both in the wage and nonwage employment sectors. The service area organization presented here represents both the current situation to a lesser extent, and the proposed structure to a greater extent. Furthermore, these subjects are taught under the current organization, in grades 8 through 12 (Form I to V). The structure and organization, and the flow of students through the educational system are presented in Figure 5. Figure 6 presents Swaziland Education Pyramid and Enrollment by gender.

Current practice insofar as the examination of these practical subjects, as well as the other general (academic) subjects, occurs at two exit points, namely, the Junior Certificate (J.C.), at the end of grade 10, and the Ordinary School Leaving Certificate ("O" levels). These examinations are set by external (to the school) examining boards. The current approach is subject-based rather than competency-based as now proposed. The proposed competency-based format of evaluation of student learning in vocational technical education provides for a continuous assessment system thus, providing an opportunity for the instructor to monitor the learner's progress for remediation as the need arises.

The Swaziland education system experiences inefficiencies which are both internal and external that put constraints on the performance of formal and nonformal education. These inefficiencies manifest themselves in the high proportions of students that either drop out of school or classes. Data from the Central Statistical Office (cited in Educansult, 1990) indicate that 25% of the students that begin school in a given cohort reach the last year of primary (elementary) school, 18.7% enter secondary, and 3.6% get to grade 12. Analyzing these data in terms of repeat and dropout rates for the year 1989/90, the repeat rates of 19% (grade 1) and 11% (grade 7) were observed. Repeat rates at the secondary for the same year were: 9% (grade 8), 14% (grade 9), 6% (grade 10) and 12.7% (grade 11) (Educansult Limited, 1990).

Source: Educansult Limited, Project Preparation Study - Phase 3, 1992 (adapted).

* SCOT - Swaziland College of Technology
* VOCTIM - Vocational and Commercial Training Institute Matsapha (formal)
* MITC - Manzini Industrial Training Center (non-formal)
* NASTC - Nhlangano Agricultural Skills Training Center (non formal)
* MPAKA - Mpaka Vocational Training Center (formal)
* SNHTC - Swaziland National Handicraft Training Center (formal/non formal)
* SAFT - School of Appropriate Farm Technology (non formal)
* UNISWA - University of Swaziland (formal)

Source: Central Statistical Office: Education Statistics 1990, Government of Swaziland (cited in Educansult Limited, 1992)

The three major reasons for dropping out of primary (elementary) school found in the 1986 study Wastage in the Education System as reported by teachers, parents, and dropouts in the order of importance were (Ministry of Education, 1986): "Financial difficulties," "Lack of interest in studies," and "Dissatisfaction with education. "At the secondary level, reasons for dropping out advanced in order of importance were: "Lack of interest in studies," "A higher grade is too far from home," and "Financial difficulties." Teacher respondents reported, "Lack of interest in studies," as the most important cause. "Lack of interest in studies" and "Dissatisfaction with education," as major causes of dropping out may as well have a direct causal relationship with the curriculum is irrelevant to the needs of the students and the labor market needs; and the instructional delivery system does not equip students with the competencies that enhance their wage employability or self-employment.

All curriculum development falls under the auspices of the National Curriculum Center (NCC). The current curriculum development process activities entail production of teacher and student materials. In the production of these materials subject associations and subject panels are major participants.

The proposed curriculum development approach, with the launching of a secondary vocational technical education program in Swaziland, is a modular approach or format. This approach is preferred because of its flexibility, thus, providing students with the opportunity to proceed at their own pace. The continuous assessment evaluation system which is also being introduced in the Swaziland education system, links well with a modular curriculum development approach.

Unlike with other service areas (Commerce, Home Economics and Technical), Agriculture has already been introduced as a pre-vocational subject. It is established at six secondary schools on a pilot basis with the technical assistance of the European Community. The program's curriculum content, delivery system, and evaluation procedures need a lot of working on to render the program vocational.

Along with the launching of a pre-vocational agriculture program in the six secondary schools, a one-year pre-vocational teacher education program was started at the University of Swaziland (UNISWA) by the Faculty of Agriculture. A technical assistance post funded by the European Community was established for the purpose of training pre-vocational agriculture teachers in the delivery of prevocational/vocational instruction. Although the focus of this training is on the delivery of instruction in grades 11 and 12 (Form IV and V), plans are underway to expand it from two years to five years, grades 8 to 12 (Form I to V).

In pursuit of the commitment to prepare school leavers better for opportunities in the labor market or self-employment, the Ministry of Education established formal vocational/technical education postsecondary institutions. Below is a brief description of the vocational profiles of selected major institutions.

Vocational and Commercial Training Institute-Matsapha (Gwamile)

The Vocational and Commercial Training Institute - Matsapha (VOCTIM) offers technical and commercial training with two main objectives (Vocational and Commercial Training Institute, Prospectus, 1992):

· Enabling Swaziland's public and private sector establishments to recruit skilled manpower at craft level from the labor market.

· Providing secondary school leavers/graduates with training at the craft level. The training emphasizes the development of technical skills in close cooperation with employers in the development of the apprenticeship program.

The central concept is theory through practice; thus, the training is interwoven, offering training at the institute as well as training on the job (dual training system).

The training at VOCTIM offers courses in Woodwork; Building and Construction; Electrical Engineering-craft; Mechanical Engineering-craft; Automotive Engineering-craft; Secretarial Studies; and Business Administration. Secretarial Studies and Business Administration are considered commercial courses hence, housed in the commercial department whereas the other remaining courses are considered technical courses accommodated in the various technical departments. Commercial courses have a training duration of three years with the second year being on-the-job training. Technical courses, on the other hand, are four years in duration, two of which are at the Institute. Completion of training is to the level Government Trade Test Grade II.

Swaziland College of Technology

The Swaziland College of Technology (SCOT) is the second largest tertiary/postsecondary institution in the country. With considerable adaptation in the recent past to meet the changing needs of the labor market, the College offers technician and craft courses. The College consists of the following departments/programs (Swaziland College of Technology, Prospectus, 1992):

Biomedical Engineering Program
Department of Engineering and Science
Department of Commercial and Hotel and Catering Studies
Department of Construction
Department of Teacher Training and Curriculum Development

A further breakdown of the courses offered and enrollment is given in Table 5. The College targets secondary and high school graduates with little or no prospects for admission into a university. It offers vocational and technical craft and technician levels of programs with Junior Certificate (grade 10) and Ordinary Level of the University of Cambrige (grade 12) admission requirements, respectively.

In addition to providing other departments with Communication Skills courses and assisting them in their curriculum development activities, the Teacher Training and Curriculum Development Department is home for Secondary Teacher Diploma programs for prospective commercial and technical teachers. Both programs, for entrance, require a good pass at the Ordinary level of the University of Cambrige (6 passes at 0-level). These teacher education programs are three years in duration.

Commercial Studies and Technical Studies are two practical subjects, in addition to Agriculture and Home Economics, that are part of the secondary/high school curriculum. With the launching of pre-vocational/vocational education in the secondary/high schools of Swaziland, the teacher education program at SCOT will need to change in both content and approach to reflect a vocational orientation. The current teacher education program is the traditional, conventional approach to teaching a practical subject.

University of Swaziland

The University of Swaziland, Faculty of Agriculture offers a one-year Post-Diploma Certificate in Pre-Vocational Agriculture, in addition to other academic programs (see Table 6) to train Pre-Vocational Agriculture (PVA) teachers. This in-service course for teachers of the existing "Modern Agriculture" at the secondary school who already hold a Diploma in Agricultural Education and a minimum of two years of teaching experience, is to enable such teachers to teach a pre-vocational agriculture curriculum at the six pilot secondary/high schools.

Table 5.

Enrollments at SCOT by Department, 1987-1992

Department	1987	1988	1989	1990	1991	1992
Mechanical	43	59	35	19	56	48
Electrical	65	63	61	89	74	78
Automotive	114	103	113	70	101	101
Construction	47	157	103	101	156	124
Hotel Catering	21	24	22	23	24	24
Commercial	123	153	136	157	170	161
Teacher Training	4	59	79	92	96	126
Woodwork	26	18	12	2	6	15
Total	443	636	561	553	683	677

Source: Economic Planning Office, 1993

Table 6.

University of Swaziland Student Enrollment 1992/93-1995/96

Faculty	1992/93	1993/94	1994/95	1995/96
Agriculture	373	277	287	314
Education	165	182	200	220
Humanities	252	295	295	334
Science	298	300	300	300
Social Science	773	940	1001	1143
Total	1730	1960	2083	2311

Source: Economic Planning Office, 1993

Unlike Modern Agriculture, a program that has been in existence in the school system for the last 20 years and whose aim was to create a better appreciation and understanding of agriculture among high school students, PVA has some potential for providing the possibility of self-employment for the school leaver. The Pre-Vocational Agriculture project which was launched in 1990 in six high schools has a home-based project component. The home-based projects which are undertaken by high school students involve raising of vegetables and small livestocks (chickens) on a commercial basis. These enterprises, it is hoped, will be continued by the students upon high school graduation/completion. The project, which was funded by the European Community (EC), provided for the introduction of PVA in nine schools, but only six schools were ultimately included in the project.

One of the achievements of the project is the production of a modular school curriculum for grades 11 and 12. This curriculum affords students acquisition of practical agricultural skills which lean more towards vocational agriculture, but still not vocational in content, delivery, and evaluation.

Cited (Brewin, 1993) as the most complex and controversial component of PVA was the home-based project concept considered to be fundamental to the success of PVA. According to the evaluation reports, home-based projects were found to be expensive to initiate and demanding a lot of time for adequate guidance/supervision on the part of the teacher. The report also pointed out that there was a great need to prepare students for an encounter with real life. Only in this manner can students prepare themselves to establish enterprises which they would be able to continue after high school. Observed and noted in the report as major constraints on the home-based project concept were access to productive land as well as being able to use that land as collateral, and access to credit for these young people.

Alongside the Pre-Vocational Agriculture teacher education program, the Faculty of Agriculture offers teacher education programs in Agricultural Education and Home Economics at both diploma and degree levels. The content of, and approaches employed in, these programs are traditional and conventional to teaching a practical subject. With the launching of a full-fledged vocational and technical education in grades 8 to 12, it is anticipated that the teacher education programs in Agriculture and Home Economics will be revised to reflect vocational technical teacher education programs in content, delivery system, and evaluation procedures.

Mpaka Vocational Training Center

The Center, which is situated on the same grounds with Mpaka High School, was established in 1984 with technical assistance from the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA). Mpaka Vocational Training Center offers vocational training in the following trades:

· Cabinet-making
· Clothing and textiles
· Motor mechanics
· Block laying and concreting
· Welding and fabrication.

In addition to the trade subjects listed above, trainees take supporting subjects which are:

· Technical English
· Technical mathematics
· Technical drawing
· Physical science
· Auto-electricity.

All the trade courses, except clothing and textiles, are operated for City and Guilds accreditation. The program of study in each of these trades extends for a duration of two years. Entry requirements are that trainees must be below 24 years of age, and must have passed the Junior Certificate (Grade 10) and both the written and verbal interviews. The maximum number of trainees admitted in each trade area does not exceed 15, and the total current enrollment (1993) is 86, with 9 of these being females. For City and Guilds accreditation examinations, the Center uses the facilities at the Swaziland College of Technology (SCOT). Accreditation is at Part I craft level. However, at the end of the program of study, trainees are examined in both the trade subjects (theory and practical) and supporting subjects. Upon successful completion, and passing the examination, the trainees are awarded a Certificate by the Ministry of Education with the trade area specification.

Mpaka Vocational Training Center has undergone curriculum development changes. In 1988, the Ministry of Education invited the Government of Canada, through the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) to conduct an evaluation of the program. The end product was the development of a competency-based training system with a new name, "Pre-Vocational" replacing "Vocational." The newly developed pre-vocational program had the following objectives (CIDA/WUSC Consultants, 1988):

· To develop a systematic approach to skill training.

· To provide students, enrolled in the Swaziland High School System, with an opportunity to acquire skill training, which may lead to self-employment, employment or entry into Vocational Training Institutions.

· To implement, in association with industry and institutions, a comprehensive student record of achievement, of skills and knowledge associated with a particular trade.

· To utilize the student's record of achievement as a method of certification with a trade.

· To utilize the DACUM Skill Profile as a means to establish a direct link with the City and Guilds Certification system for each trade area.

Though the competency-based training system with competency profiles (a document running into several hundreds of pages, now lying idle) was developed under the new name "Mpaka Pre-Vocational High School Curriculum Development Project," with technical assistance from CIDA, it was never implemented (Dlamini, 1993, Personal interview). Instead, the old curriculum and program established in 1984 were allowed by the Ministry of Education to continue. Mpaka Vocational Training Center also faces an "identity" problem with respect to its name. There appears to be lack of consensus on whether Mpaka has a "Pre-Vocational" or "Vocational" program.

Mpaka Vocational Training Center faces constraints and some of the major ones are given below (Dlamini, 1993, Personal interview):

· Mpaka faces an "identity" problem which may need a delineation of the use of the terms "Pre-Vocational" and "Vocational".

· Advancing to Part II of the craft level at SCOT for Mpaka graduates is constrained by limited facilities at SCOT. SCOT is the only institution in the country that offers Part II craft level courses for all vocational training centers in Swaziland, including SCOT's own graduates.

· Mpaka vocational/trade graduates have difficulty getting jobs as the program is geared more towards wage employment than self employment.

· The administrative structure at Mpaka High School and Mpaka Vocational Training Center is such that the Headmaster (Principal) of the High School is also the head of the Vocational Training Center. The Center has features (components) of a tertiary institution making it different from the general/academic education characteristics of the high school.

Swaziland National Handicraft Training Center

The Center was established in 1974 to provide formal and nonformal handicraft technical training, and to create an awareness to young and adult Swazis of opportunities for wage and self-employment. The target population for the Center consists of school leavers and men/women living in rural areas who desire to acquire handicraft skills. Admission of school leavers for the long term training program of 10 months (one year), requires that they be post-primary and preferably having taken technical subjects at school (Mngomezulu, 1993, personal interview). Total enrollment in 1990/91 was 29, which is about average. The Center receives technical assistance from the Government of the Republic of China through the Chinese Handicraft Technical Cooperation, and is a partner with the Government of Swaziland, through the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. All costs at the Center are paid for by these two governments, including tuition and fees. The Center has residential facilities for their students. The full time courses offered at the Center which extend for one year at level I - craft are (Swaziland National Handicraft Training Center, 1993):

· Home craft and clothing design
· Wood carving
· Stone carving
· Leather craft
· Ceramic
· Metal work
· Fine art
· Dressing and fashion design.

Students who do well in the level I - craft program proceed to level II in the second year. Students with good passes at the Junior Certificate level (grade 10) and Ordinary level (grade 12) are encouraged to enroll in the second year of the advanced courses. Upon successful completion of the course of study, students are awarded a certificate.

The Center also offers "General Hobby Courses" for rural producer groups which extend for a period of not more than a month for each course. The courses are (Swaziland National Handicraft Training Center, 1993):

· Wood carving
· Stone carving
· Basket weaving
· Tapestry weaving
· School uniform sewing
· Jewelry
· Macrame knotting
· Industrial machinery use
· New table mats design
· Traditional clay pot moulding

Rural handicraft development, yet another activity of the Center is a training program designed for men/women living in the rural areas who are craft producers. Rural craft producers are brought in for short courses/workshops of under a month in duration. Courses are designed for beginners and advanced groups.

Adult/Youth Nonformal Vocational and Technical Education

Background

In 1974 the Ministry of Education developed nonformal vocational programs to serve out-of-school youths and adults. In respect of policy measures and institutional reforms, the purpose of adult/youth and nonformal education is to provide an opportunity to those who were unable to avail themselves of formal educational opportunities. The objective is to provide vocational training, along with basic literacy and numeracy skills, so that each individual can participate and contribute more effectively to his/her well-being, and to society. Such adult/youth and nonformal vocational technical education is conducted on a nonformal basis through programs offered by Rural Education Centers, School of Appropriate Farm Technology, Manzini Industrial Training Center, to name a few. The following comprise some of the major adult/youth nonformal vocational and technical education training centers.

Manzini Industrial Training Center-Emakhonweni

As a result of the pressing need for vocational and technical skills training as an alternative form of education, Manzini Industrial Training Center (MITC) was established with the aim of giving its trainees useful and practical skills in a trade or craft which may help them find a job upon completion. The MITC provides skills training for unemployed youth between the ages of 18 and 25 years. These are out-of-school youth who are at risk. Fundamental to the program is the acquisition of basic vocational skills which will enable a young person to earn his/her own living whether by self- or waged employment.

In most of the courses offered at the Center, upon completion of the two year course in basic skills, the trainees take the relevant Swaziland Government Trade Test-Grade III with the intention of going on to Government Trade Test level-Grade II. This enables those who have not had the opportunity to complete high school (grade 12) to obtain a qualification which is recognized for pay purposes, in the wage employment sector. However, for those trainees whose desire is to become self-employed, they can apply for placement in the Business Management Extension Program (BMEP), a one year course which offers facilities and training, under the "sheltered workshop concept," to prospective entrepreneurs.

The MITC has an enrollment of over 200 trainees receiving skills training in 13 areas. Agriculture, Sewing, and Upholstery are one year courses in duration whereas Building, Carpentry, Electrical, Metal Work, Motor Mechanics, Plumbing, Printing, Panel Beating, Small Engine Repair, and Spray Painting are two years in duration. The approach employed in the training utilizes a combination of on the job training and theory lectures. Remaining as the principal training approach is "Training through production" (Manzini Industrial Training Center, Annual Report 1990/91).

Business Management Extension Program

In 1986 the management of Manzini Industrial Training Center (MITC) established the Business Management Extension Program (BMEP). BMEP is an indigenous small enterprise development project set up to combat the problem of unemployed youth who have already acquired vocational technical skills. With a grant from United States Agency for International Development (USAID), an administration building, warehouse, and eight workshops were built. BMEP is a unique institution in Swaziland that fills a specific niche: training and technical assistance for small and microbusinesses and the development of new enterprises (Gamedze, 1993, Personal interview).

BMEP's mission is to promote small enterprise development by providing trade and business skills training, individual business consultancy, and financial assistance to persons who are matured, have job experience and vocational skills, work for themselves full-time, and exhibit entrepreneurial traits. The mission statement contributes to the goal of increasing employment generated by Swazi-owned and/or managed section of the economy and expand the Swazi-owned or managed small business sector. (Gamedze, 1993, Personal interview).

The primary goal of BMEP is to assist its clients in transforming income generating activities into small business enterprises which are operated as viable economic entities. In doing so, BMEP seeks to improve its clients' ability to produce quality products/services and to effectively manage their business activities.

BMEP is governed by a Board of Directors; however the day to day operations are the responsibility of the Director assisted by a program manager responsible for training and extension, and a finance manager who oversees the functions of the organization and administration of the loan scheme.

BMEP extension officers are serving a total of 94 clients. They provide business assistance to 47 clients who also have received loans, 16 clients who are receiving business assistance only, and 31 clients who are in the assessment phase. BMEP is providing business assistance to 7 tenants in the BMEP "sheltered" workshops (Gamedze, 1993).

BMEP has established relationships and linkages with other organizations that are involved in some kind of economic/business activities, and therefore identified areas of specific need for BMEP's assistance. BMEP has formed strong linkages with other organizations involved in both urban and rural economic/business activities. These include among others: Women in Development (WID), Rural Education Centers (REC), Swaziland Farmers' Development Foundation (SFDF). BMEP has established good relationships with financial institutions (e.g., commercial banks) in which their representatives participate in BMEP training sessions and workshops as resource persons (Gamedze, 1993).

Nhlangano Agricultural Skills Training Center

The Nhlangano Agricultural Skills Training Center is an institution with an agricultural focus but supported by four other technical training programs, namely, Carpentry, Building and Construction, Motor Mechanics, and Metal Work. The Center had its first intake in 1992/93. When the Center is in full swing, a business management program to develop entrepreneurial skill will be put in place. Aimed at the youth usually referred to as "street kids" who are at risk, which includes the underprivileged, the unemployed, the educationally and socially disadvantaged, and school dropouts; the Nhlangano Agricultural Skills Training Center (NASTC) has given the youth of Swaziland another lease on life (Malan, 1992). This recently constructed skills training center offers training over a duration of two years.

Modeled after the Manzini Industrial Training Center (MITC), the Nhlangano Agricultural Skills Training Center (NASTC) has the objective of training people toward self-employment or earning a wage in the agricultural sector of the economy. The establishment of such a center that provides "on-the-job training" in Swaziland is of significance in that it plays a major role in promoting self-sufficiency among young people. On the other hand, the underprivileged young persons, those with limited formal education, are catered for in so far as skill acquisition is concerned (The Swazi Observer, 1992).

Table 7.

Manazini Industrial Training Center Enrollment, 1990/91

	Trainee
Course	Male	Female
Agriculture	9	7
Building	28	0
Carpentry	21	0
Electrical Repairs	10	0
Metal Work	20	0
Motor Mechanics	21	1
Panel Beating/Spray Painting	9	0
Plumbing	6	0
Printing	4	5
Sewing	0	28
Upholstery	5	3
	133	44
Upgrading trainees to Trade Test
Grade II level	14	0
Total	147	44

School of Appropriate Farm Technology

The School of Appropriate Farm Technology (SAFT) is a nonformal and vocational agriculture school that targets secondary/high school leavers and drop-outs who cannot proceed to formal postsecondary education for one reason or another. The aim of SAFT is to provide high school leavers with relevant vocational agricultural skills and experiences to enable them to increase agricultural production at home in their local communities, and also earn an income from sales of produce (Sibisi, 1981). The school leavers catered to by this School are those with little or no prospect of getting a job in the formal labor sector. This is a rapidly growing segment of the population of unemployed youth who may soon dominate the total population in numerical terms (Cousins, 1983).

Entrants to the School need a minimum of education in the sense that they are expected to have completed primary school (Grade VII), at least. However, those responsible for admissions have stressed motivation toward farming as one major requirement. The enrollment of the School averages 20-25 students, the majority of whom are boys. The age range of students is 18-25 years. The School has a capacity to enroll 40 students. Although the applications may range from 100 to 200 and admission may approximate the full capacity of 40 students, after the Preentry course of two weeks duration, students dropout as they experience difficulty coping with the practical demands of the course.

Rural Education Centers

In pursuance of the policy on the improvement of the quality of life and the general standard of living of the rural people, the Government of Swaziland established eight Rural Education Centers in 1978. Aiming at improving the socio-economic status of the rural people in Swaziland, the Rural Education Centers were established with the following specific objectives in mind (Ministry of Education, n.d.):

· To provide formal schooling to rural youth, and non-formal instruction to adults and unemployed school leavers.

· To instruct in vocational education through training in appropriate skills which may lead to self-employment and self-reliance.

· To assess needs and initiate projects; to coordinate services, resources, and activities of Government and Non-Governmental Organizations involved in rural development.

· To serve as a community resource center where educational, economic and social activities may be developed and focused providing facilities that may be used for non-formal education purposes.

Seven of the Rural Education Centers (RECs) were built at seconda