THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SITUATION

Ghana at independence in 1957 enjoyed about the largest income per head of population in sub-Saharan Africa and, with her cocoa exports booming, she had vast foreign exchange reserves. However, from 1965 the economy of Ghana began to deteriorate steadily up to 1983. There was a persistent decline in all sectors of the economy. Marked deterioration was noticed in critical infrastructure, including roads, railways, electricity, telecommunications, health and educational facilities as well as industrial plant, which showed visible signs of decline nationally.

There was a decline in the production of cocoa, the country's largest foreign exchange earner. Ghana's share of the world market in cocoa had fallen from about a third in the early 1970s to only about 12 percent in 1982/83. Food production also fell, with a fourfold increase in food imports in the decade to 1982. Similarly, there had been a drop in the production of minerals, the country's second major source of foreign exchange. Output of gold, bauxite and diamonds had fallen steadily. Energy supplies had failed to meet the growing needs of industry, with oil imports being restricted by foreign exchange shortages and locally generated hydro-electricity unable to make up the shortfall. Also there was a shortage of other petroleum products, the prices of which rose sharply. Consequently, there was a fall in capacity utilization in manufacturing. The effect was a sharp drop in the GDP.

The Government that came to power in December, 1981 inherited severe financial problems with unbalanced budgets, leading to rapid increases in money supply. This, with persistent shortages of consumer goods, had led to high inflation. Decline in exports had contributed to huge balance of payments deficits and build-up of external arrears.

More fundamentally, the country's human resources also underwent severe strain, with over 2 million Ghanaians leaving the country in search of better opportunities elsewhere. There was a severe shortage of manpower in the agricultural sector.

It was against this background of economic chaos, immense human suffering and loss of national pride that the Government in 1983 launched the IMF-backed Economic Recovery Programme (ERP), under which it took steps to reverse many of the economic policies of previous regimes and began to implement far reaching structural and financial reforms designed to create a buoyant economic growth. It succeeded in allocating resources more widely throughout the country, moving the economy from several years of decline to steady real growth averaging 5 percent from 1985 to 1993. Unfortunately, however, in 1994 Ghana's economy has not performed as well as expected. The high rate of inflation, the steep decline of the cedi (Ghana currency) and the high interest rates during the year have adversely affected growth of business and the purchasing power of the people.

Employment Status:

Ghana's population in 1990 was estimated at 14.1 million and with an estimated annual growth of 2.6 to 3% the population is expected to increase to between 18.7 million and 19.5 million by the year 2000.

Like the situation in most developing countries, data on employment and the labour market in Ghana are scanty and incomplete. The latest (1984) Ghana Population Census revealed the following information on employment status of the population and its distribution by sector (see tables 1 and 2).

Table 1: Population, labour force and employment status ('000)

			N	%
A.	Total population		12,296
		Total labour force (15+)	5,581
B.	Economically active populations		5,581
		Employed	5,423	100,0
		Urban	1,640	30,2
		Rural	3,784	69,8
		Unemployed	158	100,0
		Urban	105	66,5
		Rural	53	33,5
C.	Employment Status		5,423	100,0
		Wage employment	877	16,2
		Self employed	3,788	69,7
		Unpaid family workers	680	12,5
		Others	88	1,6
D.	Wage employment		877	100,0
		Central Government	311	35,5
		Public Books	242	27,6
		Private enterprises	320	36,5
		Others	4	0,4
E.	Self employed		3,788	100,0
		Without employees	3,522	93,2
		With employees	256	6,8

Source:	ILO/JASP, Employment mission report (Addis Ababa, 1989).
	JASPA - Jobs And Skills Programme for Africa.

Table 2 Employment distribution by sector ('000)

Sector		1984	1987/88
	N°	%	N°	%
Agriculture	3,311	61,1	4,203	66,1
Mining	27	0,5	69	1.1
Manufacturing and Utilities	588	10.9	436	6,9
Construction	65	1.2	80	1.3
Transport and Comm.	792	14.6	857	13.5
Finance and Business Services	27	0.5	24	0.4
Government Services	474	8.7	557	8.8
Total Employment	5,422	100.0	6,354	100.0
Unemployment	128		123
Labour force	5,580		6,477
Unemployment (%)	2.8		1.9

Source: ILO/JASPA, Employment mission report Details regarding the sectoral distribution of labour can be obtained from the census data for 1984 and the 1987/88 Ghana Living Standards Survey.

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

Improvements in the quality of human resources are crucial to the economic, social and political development of any country. Education and training, which are the major means of developing human resources, influence socio-economic development because they increase the productivity of the labour force and endow it with increased knowledge and skills. Individuals with higher education are regarded as being more productive; hence they are offered better employment and wage opportunities than individuals with low education. Also people with a high level of education tend to have greater motivation to work than people with little or no education. Finally, education and training provide employment and income-earning opportunities for teachers, school workers, printing and publishing industry, school uniform manufacturers, etc..., and they create an environment for changing social attitudes relevant to economic development.

To help maintain the economy of Ghana on the path of steady growth and to improve the social and political life of the people, therefore, there is the need to develop her human resources.

Major constraints:

Since the mid-1960s, however, there have been two major problems relating to human resource development in the country, namely:

i) lack of skilled personnel in certain critical areas of the economy; and

ii) surplus in certain categories of skills due partly to a decrease of employment opportunities in the formal sector.

There is growing unemployment among the educated in the formal sector because growth in job openings has not kept pace with the number of new entrants into the labour market for the educated. There is at the same time a persistent shortage of occupational and technical skills in many areas of the economy, especially in the public sector, which has, to some extent, made it impossible for certain programmes for the effective management of the economy to be undertaken. This has resulted from the formal educational system which, by emphasizing the study of academic subjects without any preparation for a job, did not adequately serve the socio-economic needs of the individual, of the society in which he lives, nor of the country as a whole.

Three major means can be applied to counteract these problems, namely:

i) formal education and training in educational institutions from the first-cycle to the tertiary level;

ii) non-formal education comprising mainly adult literacy programmes and skills development programmes; and

iii) informal training comprising the apprenticeship system, extension services and education through the mass media including newspaper, journals, radio and TV.

Further to these problems, financial resources have since the late 1960s been increasingly scarce in relation to the demand for places at all levels for all forms of education due to rapid population growth and the demands on the resources of the country.

It is the realization of the above deficiencies, among others in the former educational system that has prompted the Government of Ghana to reform the entire educational system from the primary to the tertiary level. It is expected that the on-going educational reforms will result in the provision of quality education that will fulfil the goals and aspirations of pupils and students and at the same time meet the socio-economic needs of the country.

THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

Management and Administration

The Ministry of Education is responsible for formulating policies, preparing plans and monitoring the implementation of educational programmes. The Ministry, which is headed by the Minister for Education, has the following Divisions under it:

i. School Education
ii. Tertiary Education
iii. Non-Formal Education
iv. Administration and Finance
v. Planning, Budgeting, Monitoring and Evaluation.

The Tertiary Education Division of the Ministry is responsible for implementing policies and programmes relating to tertiary education, which is delivered at the Universities, the University Colleges, the Polytechnics and similar institutions.

The Ghana Education Services (GES) was established in 1974 as part of the Public Services of Ghana by the National Redemption Council Decree (NRCD 247) of 1974. It is the largest of the bodies under the Ministry of Education, and has the responsibility of implementing pre-university educational policies formulated by the Ministry of Education. It is headed by a Director-General, who is assisted by two Deputy Directors-General, ten Directors and two-Coordinators at the Headquarters.

The Director-General of the Ghana Education Service works through the Deputy Minister in charge of the School Education Division of the Ministry of Education to the Minister for Education. One of the two Deputy Directors-General is responsible for school operation programmes (i.e. Basic Education, Secondary Education, Teacher Education, Technical and Vocational Education, Special Education, Physical Education, Cultural Studies and Curriculum Research and Development), whilst the other oversees Manpower and Training, Supplies and the Inspectorate.

At the Headquarters level, there are ten Divisions of the Service, namely Basic Education, Secondary Education, Teacher Education, Technical and Vocational Education, Special Education, Manpower and Training, Supplies, Curriculum Research and Development, Administration and Finance, and the Inspectorate, each headed by a Director. There are also Physical Education and Cultural Studies Units headed by Co-ordinators, both within the Director-General's outfit.

There is also a Regional Education Office, headed by a Regional Director in each of the ten Regions of the country, whilst there is a District Education Office in each of the 110 districts headed by a Director.

The Ghana Education Service is charged with the responsibility to:

a) administer, manage and inspect pre-university educational institutions;

b) register, supervise and inspect private schools;

c) provide teacher education, general education, special education (as education of the handicapped), and technical and vocational education;

d) arange to register teachers and maintain professional standard and conduct of teachers;

e) maintain a code of ethics and good conduct among teachers.

The Former Structure

In the past the structure of education in Ghana consisted of three levels:

i. First-Cycle or Elementary Education This level was made up of 6-year Primary Education and 4-year Middle School Education;

ii. Second-Cycle Education This level comprised the education provided in the following categories of institutions:

- Secondary Schools providing 5-year secondary education followed by 2-year sixt form education

- Technical Institutes

- Vocational Schools/Training Centres

- Teacher Training Colleges providing 4-year post-middle programme/course. (This programme/course was phased out completely in June 1991).

NB. Institutions which were post-secondary but were treated as second-cycle institutions included the following:

- post-secondary Teacher Training Colleges.
- Polytechnics

iii. Institutions of higher education comprised

- The 3 Universities
- the 7 Diploma-Awarding Institutions.

THE PRESENT STRUCTURE

Currently, Ghana's educational structure based on the 6 + 3 + 3 + 4 system under the new Educational Reform Programme consists of three levels as mentioned below: (See Appendix 'A').

i. First Cycle or Basic Education This level is made up of 6-year Primary Education followed by 3-year Junior Secondary Education.

ii. Second-Cycle Education This level of education is provided in the following categories of institutions;

- Senior Secondary School (3 years)
- Technical institutes
- Vocational Schools/Training Centres
- Other post-basic educational institutions

iii. Tertiary Education This level of education comprises the following institutions:

- The 4 Universities and the University College of

- Education, Winneba. the 6 Polytechnics.

- a number of pre-service training institutions which are primarily career or work-oriented. (These pre-service training institutions include Nurses' Training Colleges, Agricultural Colleges, Forestry School, Veterinary School, and 38 initial Teacher Training Colleges (10 of which offer technical subjects).

N.B. It is envisaged that these institutions, which are spread all over the country, will be grouped together and managed regionally as Regional colleges of Applied Arts, Science and Technology (RECAAST).

OBJECTIVES AND CONTENT OF EDUCATION

Pre-school Education

This level of education covers the ages of 2-6 years. It is made of 1 1/2 to 2 years Nursery and 1 1/2 to 2 years Kindergarten, which together constitute pre-School Education. It is not compulsory. Pre-School Education has the following objectives:

i. to provide a home substitute for young children and offer them opportunities for overall personal development;

ii. To provide opportunities for holistic development of the child through organized individual and group play activities;

iii. To create awareness in the children of their national heritage and culture;

iv. To pre-dispose the child to conditions of formal education in order to accelerate the learning process during formal schooling;

v. To lay a solid foundation for all-round learning.

Basic Education

The national policy on Basic Education stipulates that all children from the age of six should receive nine years formal education as a matter of right.

The nine-year basic Education programme is made up of six years Primary Education and three years Junior Secondary Education.

Primary Education

a) Primary Education, which is of 6 years' duration, constitutes the foundation of the educational system.

b) Primary Education has the following major objectives among others:

i) Numeracy and literacy, i.e. the ability to count, use numbers, read, write and communicate effectively;

ii) Laying the foundation for inquiry and creativity;

iii) Development of sound moral attitude and a healthy appreciation of our cultural heritage and identity;

iv) Development of the ability to adapt constructive to a changing environment;

v) Laying the foundation for the development of manipulative and life skills that will prepare the individual pupils to function effectively to their own advantage as well as that of their community;

vi) inculcating in the pupils good citizenship education as a basic for effective participation in national development.

c) These objectives have been incorporated into a revised national curriculum comprising the following subjects for all Primary Schools:

Mathematics	English
Science	Agriculture
Social Studies	Life Skills
Cultural Studies	Physical Education
Ghanaian Languages.

Junior Secondary School

a) The Junior Secondary School forms an integral part of compulsory Basic Education; It is both terminal and continuing.

b) The curriculum of the junior Secondary School has been reviewed and expanded to include practical skills orientation. Consequently, in addition to the general subjects, the curriculum has been designed to provide opportunities for pupils to acquire basic pre-technical, pre-vocational and basic life skills which will enable the pupils to:

i. discover their aptitudes and potentialities so as to induce in them the desire for sel-improvement;

ii. appreciate the use of the hand as well as the mind and make them creative.

c) The following subjects comprise the curriculum for the Junior Secondary School:

Mathematics	Basic Technical Skills
English Language	Technical Drawing
Science	Vocational Skills
Agricultural Science	Cultural Studies
Social Studies	Life Skills
French (Optional)	Ghanaian Language
	Physical Education

d) Every pupil is expected to study all the subjects. Twelve vocational subjects have been approved for study in the junior Secondary Schools throughout the country. Each school is required to select for study two of those subjects for which materials are available locally.

e) The jonior Secondary School course forms the major part of the all-embracing educational reform programme, which took off in September, 1987. The main thrust of the on-going educational reforms is the vocationalization of education - i.e. making education vocationally oriented by the introduction of pre-technical, pre-vocational skills right from the Basic Education level.

SECOND CYCLE INSTITUTIONS

More than 35 percent of the pupils who complete the Junior Secondary Schools enter second-cycle institutions, of which there are two kinds, namely:

- Senior Secondary Schools (public and private)
- Technical Institutes (public and private)

However, in the case of the second-cycle institutions under the Ghana Education Service alone, the total annual intake of Junior Secondary School graduates is about 356% as can be seen from Table 3 below.

Table 3

Intake Into Second-Cycle Institution
Under the Ghana Education Service

YEAR	5A) Basic Ed. Cert Exam Candidates.	INTAKE			% = 100 D/A
		(B) Sec. Schools	(C) Tech. Institut.	(D) TOTAL
1991	147,249	49,277	4,022	53,299	36.20
1992	165,359	54,618	4,320	53,938	36.64
1993	181,824	58,537	4,492	63,029	34.66

Senior Secondary School

Education at this level is designed to cater for students of ages 16 to 18 years and lasts for three years after the nine years of Basic Education. As part of the educational reforms, the Senior Secondary School has been designed to offer the students the opportunity to build on the foundation laid at the Basic Education level and to strengthen the general intellectual knowledge and skills that are required for occupations and for further education. The three-year programme is to cater for various aptitudes in the fields of technical, vocational, agricultural, business and general education.

A curriculum relevant to the socio-economic development and manpower requirements of the country has been developed for the Senior Secondary School. The Senior Secondary School system has replaced the trditional 7-year (i.e. 5-year Secondary + 2-year Sixth Form) course. It has the following objectives.

i) To reinforce and build on knowledge, skills and attitudes acquired at the Junior Secondary School level;

ii) To produce well-developed and productive individuals equipped with the qualities of responsible leadership capable of fitting into a scientific and technological world and to contribute to the socio-economic development of their own areas and the country as a whole;

iii) To increase the relevance of the content of the curriculum to the culture and socio-economic problems of the country;

iv) To provide increased access to second-cycle education.

Senior Secondary School students study seven core subjects:

a) English
b) Mathematics
c) Science
d) Agriculture and Environmental Studies
e) Life Skills
f) Ghanaian Language
g) Physical Education (which is not examined externally in the Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination).

In addition each student selects three subjects from a wide range of programme-options consisting of three subjects to be studied under one of five specialized programmes, namely

i. Agriculture Programme
ii. Technical Programme
iii. Business programme
iv. Vocational Programme
v. General (Arts & Science) Programme.

Up to 1990, secondary schools were offering predominantly Arts and Science subjects, but from 1991 the education reform programme has introduced into the curriculum vocationally oriented programmes, namely Technical, Vocational, Business and Agriculture. (See Table 4 below for intakes into vocationally oriented programmes as compared with general programmes for the period 1991-1993).

Table 4 Comparative Intakes Into Vocationally Oriented And General Programmes In Senior Secondary Schools

YEAR OF INTAKE	No Admitted Into Voc. Oriented prog. (i.e. tech. voc. business, agric)	No. Admitted into gener. prog. (arts and science)	Total Intake	% Vocational Oriented Programmes Total Intake
1991	29,689	19,588	49,277	60.25
1992	31,230	23,388	54,618	57.18
1993	34,199	24,338	58,537	58.42

Tertiary Education

In pursuing an overall national education reform programme, the Government of Ghana has since 1986 reviewed the tertiary level of education and has on the basis of the review, articulated objectives for tertiary education which have led to policy-based actions.

The following objectives and planned activties provide an insight into the trends for developing tertiary education.

a) Tertiary Education is to be efficiently managed with the added concern of making it cost-effective. In this respect, schemmes to increase efficiency in the utilization of space, resources and personnel will be ensured.

b) National institutions are to be set up to co-ordinate and ensure uniformity particularly in the areas of admissions, accreditation and overall planning and evaluation.

c) At the institutional level, course structures are to be adjusted to better accommodate working persons, provide viable linkages between different types of programmes within the sub-sector, imbue students with a development orientation and methodology, and provide greater relevance in course content.

d) In view of the need to expand access to tertiary education to meet expansion at basic and secondary levels, and furthermore to diversify programmes at the tertiary level, the following paragraphs provide information on measures being taken:

i) The implementation of the New Educational Reform Programme has increased the student population at the pre- tertiary education level. The tertiary educational institutions should therefore be in a position to admit an increasing number of qualified Senior Secondary School graduates. Hence the expansion and upgrading of the Polytechnics and the Regional Colleges Apllied Acrts, Science and Technology (RECAAST) institutions into the tertiary sector.

ii) The new educational reforms have definite implications for teacher preparation. Teachers form the key factor in the implementation process throughout the system, and the success of the reforms will depend largely on their competence and commitment. Consequently, reforms are also being introduced into teacher education to fit into the pre-university programmes adequately, in this direction, the teacher training programme has been restructured and the academic level for the intake into Teacher Training Colleges has been raised to '0' Level as the basic entry qualification.

iii) There is no doubt that facilities and resources at the tertiary level will have to be enhanced in tandem with relevant schemes for extension of services and improvement in the quality of education. Initial steps have already been taken towards the improvement of library facilities, increased supply of educational materials and equipment and provision of instructional facilities to enhance instructional capacity. Plans are advanced for the provision of other facilities to cater for non-resident students.

iv) Attention is being paid to the crucial area of staff development to provide an adequate supply of qualified personnel to carry out the reform programme.

v) In spite of increased government inputs into the tertiary system, further support is required from nongovernmental sources. Specific programmes for cost-sharing include the promotion of income-generating activities by institutions, the establishment of government bursaries and scholarships and the promotion of non-governmental sponsorship for students.

Special Education

Special education for the handicapped is one of the major concerns of the Ministry of Education. This is because it is considered that handicapped people have the same needs as others to enable them to lead a fuller life. They also have potentials that can be tapped for the benefit of society. The education policy with regard to the handicapped is to train them to be able to fit into society and function normally and independently. As a result, people who are not severely handicapped are being encouraged to take advantage of the available opportunities for fitting into normal institutions, after acquiring basic education in special schools set up for them.

In pursuit of these goals, there is a Division of Special Education within the Ghana Education Service whose function is to develop, supervise and evaluate programmes in special schools. All children who are found to be capable of integrating into normal schools are encouraged and supported to do so. The Ghana Education Service recognizes the important role of parents and peripatetic teachers to work together towards an early identification and intervention in handicapped situations.

Accessibility to education for handicapped persons is available at all levels. At the basic level there are seventeen Special Schools - twelve for the deaf, three for the mentally handicapped and two for the blind. At the Senior Secondary level, a Secondary/Technical School and a Secondary/Vocational School have been set up for the deaf, whilst some selected secondary schools within the public system have been equipped to serve as integrated secondary schools for the blind.

Facilities have also been set up at the University of Cape Coast to enable blind students pursue degree courses.

An efficient service for handicapped children requires for its operation competent staff. The College of Special Education, one of the diploma-awarding colleges that in November, 1992 formed the nucleus of the University College of Education at Winneba, ensures the fulfilment of this principle. Attempts are also being made to bring about the production of more trained teachers for the handicapped. This is being done through the introduction of elements of special education into the curriculum of all teacher training colleges in the country.

NON-FORMAL EDUCATION

Non-formal Education in Ghana has been placed on the same footing as the formal system of education, following a recommendation of the 1977 Conference of African Ministers in Lagos for the "establishment of national councils or boards for non-formal education and structures within their Ministries of Education for the purpose of promoting non-formal education as an integral part of the national education system".

Under the Educational Reform Programme launched in 1987 by the Government, the Ministry of Education established the new Division of Non-Formal Education to work through Non-formal Education agencies to support a national Mass Literacy and Social Change Programme (MASSLIP).

Non-Formal Education covers organized and semi-organized educational activities operating outside the regular structure and routines of the formal education sub-sector and aimed at serving a great variety of learning needs of different sub-groups of the population, both young and old.

The Non-Formal Education Division of the Ministry of Education is charged with programming and co-ordinating the large social sector with a view to revitalizing teaching aids, facilitators, training, distance learning as well as community-based self-employment opportunities in order to make society at large functionally literate.

The main aim of the Division is to wipe out illiteracy by the year 2000 by embarking upon functional literacy programmes in the local languages as well as English.

TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SYSTEM

In Ghana, technical and vocational education and training is delivered at three levels: Basic Education, second-cycle and tertiary education levels. At the Basic Education level, technical and vocational education really starts from the Junior Secondary School. Technical and vocational education at the second-cycle level is provided in the Secondary Technical Schools, Technical Institutes, Vocational Schools/Training Centres and other post-basic education training institutions as well as in some of the initial Teacher Training colleges. Technical education at the tertiary level is delivered in the Universities, the Polytechnics and similar institutions.

PURPOSE

In Ghana, the purpose of technical and vocational education at non-degree level is to provide young men and women with skills training (in addition to general education) in order to enable them to fulfil the country's technical manpower needs including self-employment up to the middle level in the field of industry, business and agriculture.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of technical and vocational education in Ghana include the following:

a) To expose pupils at the Basic Education level to a range of practical activities in the vocational filed in order to make them familiar with, and stimulate their interest in, vocational subjects and so give them equal opportunity to choose their future careers in either the technical or general field.

b) To equip students who have completed Basic Education with those occupational skills that will enable them to enter into gainful employment in industry and commerce.

c) To equip students with the relevant productive and entrepreneurial skills that will prepare them for self-employment.

d) To provide trained human resources in science, technology and commerce, matching supply of skilled labour with demand.

e) To provide personnel with the technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for agricultural, industrial, commercial and economic development, while at the same time paying attention to environmental issues.

f) To give training and impart the necessary knowledge and skills to trained manpower leading to the provision of operatives, artisans, craftsmen, technicians and other middle-level technical personnel.

g) To enable the youth to have an intelligent understanding of the increasing complexity of science and technology through systematic exposure to modern technology.

h) To encourage the increased participation of women in education, training and employment in the technical field.

i) To provide a sound foundation for further education for those students who may wish to continue their education later in the context of lifelong education.

LEGISLATION

The delivery of technical and vocational education in Ghana has been facilitated by the enactment of various laws, including the following:

1. The Education Act, 1961 popularly known as the Compulsory Education Act, defined the publix system of education under primary and middle school education, and secondary education, and made education at the primary and middle level free and compulsory.

2. The National Vocational Training Act, 1970, in recognizing the need to emphasize the more practical aspects of training, provided for the establishment of a National Vocational training Institute (NVTI) under the Ministry of Employment and Social Welfare to perform certain specified functions including the follomwing:

a. organizing apprenticeship, in-plant training and training programmes for industrial and clerical workers, and training the instructors and training officers required for the purpose;

b. developing training standards and trade testing.

3. The Ghana Teaching Service Decree, 1974 (NRCD 247), was promulgated for the establishment of the Ghana Teaching Service to ensure effective management, supervision and inspection of pre-university educational institutions as well as the provision of teacher education, general education, special education (such as education of the handicapped), technical and business education in Ghana and the formulation of educational policies and programmes. The name Ghana Teaching Service was changed to Ghana Education Service in 1975 by the Ghana Teaching Service (Amendment Decree, 1975 (NRCD 357)

4. The Constitution of the Republic of Ghana, 1992 states, among other things, in Article 25 that "secondary education in its different forms, including technical and vocational education, shall be made generally available and accessible to all by every appropriate means, and particular, by the progressive introduction of free education; and in article 38 that "That State shall, subject to the availability of resources, provide:

a. equal and balanced access to secondary and other appropriate pre-university education, equall access to university or equivalent education, with emphasis on science and technology;

b. a free adult literacy programme, and a free vocational training rehabilitation and resettlement of disabled persons and

c. life-long education".

5. The Polytechnic Law, 1992 (PNDCL 317), promulgated in 1992, empowered the six Polytechnics in Ghana which were already in existence, to, among other things, provide technical education at the tertiary level.

Administration

Part from the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Employment and Social Welfare, which among other things, administer technical and vocational education and training, there are other government agencies and private organizations which are also engaged in technical and vocational education and training. See Appendix 'E' for examples of these)

Specifically, the responsibility of organizing and providing technical and vocational education and training at the craft and technician levels in the Technical Institutes under the Ministry of Education is vested in the Technical and Vocational Education Division of the Ghana Education Service.

The Technical and Vocational Education Division exercises a supervisory role over the technical and vocational institutions in the private sector.

The Division is also responsible for developing and reviewing curricula for technical and vocational education programmes, for conducting technical examinations, and for awarding the corresponding certificates.

The management of the technical and vocational institutions in the private sector is the responsibility of the individuals or the organizations of Churches that established them.

Technical education at the tertiary level, which is delivered at the Polytechnics and the University of Science and Technology, comes under the administration of the Tertiary Education Division of the Ministry of Education.

NATIONAL CO-ORDINATING COMMITTEE FOR TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING

Over the years, there has been duplication in the organization and administration of technical and vocational education and training in Ghana due to the delivery of technical and vocational education and training by a proliferation of institutions and organizations. To remedy this situation, the Government decided to rationalize the entire system of technical and vocational education and training in the country.

Establishment of Co-ordinating Body:

Accordingly, the National Co-ordinating Committee for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (NACVET) was established in 1990 to formulate policies and co-ordinate all aspects of technical and vocational education and training, and to advise on a scheme and structure of technical and vocational education and training that would meet the requirements of the Ghanaian economy and also make the youth employable in both the formal and informal sectors. Another crucial function of NACVET is the rationalization of the evaluation, testing, assessment and accreditation procedures of the system of technical and vocational education.

NACVET operates through 8 technical sub-committees dealing with specific subjects as follows:

a) Technician Education and Training Programmes
b) Craft Education and Training Programmes
c) Technical Teacher Education and Instructor Training Programmes
d) Examinations and Accreditation
e) Manpower Planning and Collaboration with Industry and Commerce
f) Vocational/Career Guidance and Counselling
g) International cooperation
h) Tools, Equipment and materials Procurement and Supplies.

Some of the major achievments of NACVET since its inception include the following:

i) Policy on technical and vocational education has been developed

ii) National Occupational Standards (NOS) have for the first time been established for some trade areas in Ghana by a corps of professionals. In this connection, syllabuses in the form of Modules of Employable Skills (MES) based on the NOS are being developed for 40 relevant trade areas under the auspices of the Ministry of Employment and Social Welfare and the UNDP/ILO Umbrella Programme for Sustained Employment Generation. The Umbrella Programme, which is made up of three components, aims at promoting and sustaining employment policies and programmes through:

a) enhanced Government capacity to plan and monitor employment policies;

b) more effective skill development and utilization in support of employment promotion; and

c) the development of micro and small enterprises programmes.

iii) Under the auspices of this Umbrella programme NACVET has embarked on re-orienting technical and vocational education towards self-employment. In furtherance of this, enterpreneurial education is being integrated into the curriculum for the technical and vocational institutions.

Arrangements are in progress towards establishing, upon the appropriate legislation, a National Council for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (NACVET), to replace the existing National Co-ordinating Committee for Technical and Vocational Education and Training.

INSTITUTIONS AND PROGRAMMES

There are 160 technical and vocational institutions in Ghana run by different government agencies and 250 registered private institutions. There are also 700 unregistered private vocational schools/training centres. There are 6 Polytechnics and the University of Science and Technology which provide technical education at the Higher National diploma and degree levels respectively.

Table 5 below gives the breakdown of government agencies/institutions engaged in technical and vocational education and training:

Table 5 Government Agencies and Nu鵥er of Institutions engaged in TVE.

GOVERNMENT AGENCY	NO. OF INSTITUTIONS
National Vocational Training Institute (NVTI)	21
Integrated Community Centres for Employable Skills (ICCES)	70
Intermediate Technology Transfer Unit (ITTU)	6
Ghana Education Service (GES)	21
Other Government Institutions	42
Total	160

NATIONAL VOCATIONAL TRAINING INSTITUTE

The National Vocational Training Institute (NVTI) is a technical and vocational training agency under the Ministry of Employment and Social Welfare. The courses offered by the NVTI are mostly practically oriented. In general, they consist of 75 percent of practical training and 25 percent theoretical studies. The duration of the courses varies from 2 to 4 years, with the 4-year courses, run on block-release basis. Also run by the NVTI are 2 to 3-year apprenticeship courses, which are known as centre-based courses simply because both the educational and practical training are done at the centre. These courses lead to the

Tradesman Grade II and Grade I certificates. Entry to NVTI courses is open to holders of the Middle School Leaving Certificate (MSLC), Junior Secondary School Certificate (JSSC), Basic Education Certificate (BEC) or its equivalent.

Integrated Community Centres For Employable skills

The Integrated Community Centres for Employable Skills (ICCES), which are under the Ministry of Employment and Social Welfare, normally run short courses which are predominantly practically oriented. These courses are geared towards practical skills acquisition through community development projects. The duration of the courses varies from a minimum of about two weeks (for vulcanizers) up to a maximum of two years. Applicants could be either literate or illiterate but must be fit and trainable.

Intermediate Technology Unit

Apart from giving on-the-job training to artisans and small-scale industrialists in the private sector, the Intermediate Technology Transfer Unit (ITTU) under the auspices of the Ghana Regional Appropriate Technology Industrial Service (GRATIS), makes available to its clients the following services free of charge

a) technical information
b) advice on technical, economic and commercial matters.

The ITTU is a group of production workshops demonstrating new products and improved manufacturing methods. It shows what is possible and leads the way by providing a practical example for others to follow. It liaises with educational as well as research institutions and also offers rural and women's industrial extension services to help introduce non-engineering income-generating activities such as food-processing, textiles and pottery.

Courses run By Private Technical/Vocational Schools/Institutes

Private technical and vocational institutions run a variety of courses lasting between 3 and 4 years. Their students take either the City and Guilds of London Institute or the Ghana Education Service craft certificate examination or the national Vocational Training Institute (NVTI) Craftsman or Tradesman Grade certificate examination. The entry requirements include the possession of any one of the following: The Middle-school Leaving Certificate (MSLC), the Basic Education Certificate (BEC) or its equivalent.

Courses Run By Technical Institutes Under the Administration of the Technical and Vocational Education division of the Ghana Education Service

The programmes of Technical Institutes, embracing technological and practical training as well as general education, are organized along the following lines (See Appendix 'C' for courses run in the Technical Institutes):

Full Time Programme

i) Pre-Employment Courses

- The programmes under this system are undertaken by holders of Middle School Leaving Certificate (MSLC)/Junior Secondary School Certificate (JSSC/Basic Education Certificate (BEC) or its equivalent for a minimum of three years.

- Course offered are in the ratio of 60 percent practical training and 40 percent theory.

ii) Block release Course

Under this system, workers and apprentices who are holders of MSLC/SSC/BEC or its equivalent are released by employers to attend classes for short periods of fifteen to seventeen (15-17) weeks per year for four years.

iii) Short Courses

Special short courses in specific fields are organized according to local and national manpower needs or at the request of employers in the fields of industry, commerce, agriculture, etc.

Part-Time Programme

i) Afternoon Classes

Classes are organized in the afternoons for workers and other interested members of the public who are holders of MSLC/SSC/BEC or its equivalent and would like to further their education in technical and vocational subjects beyond the MSLC/JSSC/BEC level.

ii) Evening Classes

Classes are organized in the evenings for workers and other interested members of the public who are holders of the MSLC/JSSC/BEC or its equivalent and would like to further their education in technical and vocational subjects beyond the MSLC/JSSC/BEC level.

- The duration of a part-time course is normally one year longer than that of a full-time course.

- Both full-time and part-time courses lead to the award of Craft Certificates of the Ghana Education Services (GES) the City and Guild of London Institute (CGLI).

Advanced Craft and Technician Course

Advanced Craft and Technician Courses are offered in Technical Institutes which have the necessary facilities.

Polytechnics

Following the upgrading of the Polytechnics to tertiary institutions under the educational reform programme, they have since 1993 started running Higher National Diploma (HND) programmes on full-time basis in place of the lower technician and advanced craft courses, which are now being run in the afternoon and evening as part-time classes. (See Appendix 'D' and 'E' for the programmes and courses of the Polytechnics).

Universities

Although all the four Universities in the country offer some programmes in the field of science and technology, it is only one of them, the University of Science and Technology, Kumasi that has been set up specifically to provide programmes in engineering and other technological studies as well as in art education. The University of Cape Coast has recently begun an M. Phil degree course in Vocational Education and Training.

University College of Winneba

This University College, which was established by the amalgamation of 7 Diploma-Awarding Colleges, is specifically assigned the responsibility of producing graduate teachers for second-cycle institutions in a variety of disciplines including art, Business Education, Home Science, Music, Physical Education, Mathematics and Science.

Articulation

Below is a brief description of the articulation between technical and vocational education and other elements of the educational system, which can best be understood by referring to the educational structure in Appendix 'A'.

Students who complete Basic Education may enter a Technical Institute or a Senior Secondary School, where they take a 3-year programme. On completion, the Senior Secondary School graduates may proceed to the University for a degree course or to a Polytechnic for the HND programme or to any of the other tertiary institutions for preparation for an occupation of their choice. On the other hand, on completion of their craft course, the Technical Institute graduates may enter into employment for a year, after which they may go back to the Institute to do the advanced craft course. After the advanced craft course, the students may undertake a technician course either on full-time basis at a Technical Institute or on part-time basis at a Polytechnic. Students who complete the technician course may proceed to a Polytechnic for the HND programme. The graduates from the Polytechnic have the opportunity to enter any of the Universities to undertake a degree course.

It is important to note that the curriculum for technical and vocational education at the craft level as well as the advanced craft and technician levels includes, among others, general subjects which give the students a sound background in general education so that those who have the ability may proceed to the highest possible level of their educational and occupational careers. With the integration of the general subjects into the technical and vocational education curriculum, firm linkages have been established throughout the educational system. For example, in the case of technical and vocational students, provision has been made for the admission of

i. artisans to craft courses.
ii. craftsmen to technician courses, and
iii. technicians to university or professional courses.

FINANCING OF TVE

The government is the main provider of funds for executing technical and vocational education programmes in the public sector, covering the provision of buildings, equipment, handtools, materials for training and staff emoluments.

Friendly foreign countries constitute another source of funding for technical and vocational education. The assistance given by the foreign countries may be in the form of loans or grants. For example, the Canadian government, through the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), has jointly with the Government of Ghana established two technical institutions, namely Accra Technical Training Centre and Kumasi Technical Institute. CIDA has from time to time been providing funds for supporting the two institutions as well as for rehabilitating Tamale Polytechnic.

The German government has also under a joint project with the government of Ghana helped to establish Takoradi Technical Institute and continues to give support to this Institute in the form of equipment and materials for training. Through the cooperation of the Governments of Ghana and France, an Industrial Maintenance Department, which is the first of its kind in Ghana, has been established at Accra Technical Training Centre this year, 1994, to train industrial maintenance technicians on full-time as well as on part-time basis.

Short courses also in Industrial Maintenance will be run for technical personnel, including technicians and engineers already employed in industry.

The following describes briefly the procedure for allocating funds for technical and vocational education programmes under the annual budget:

a) At the beginning of the last quarter of every year, the technical institutions in the public system submit their estimates (both recurrent and capital) for the ensuing year to the headquarters of the Ghana Education Service, where they are collated and sent to the Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning. The Ministry of finance and Economic Planning further collates the estimates of all Ministries and departments in the public service and sumbits them to Parliament for approval.

b) Quarterly grants from the approved budget are allocated to the technical institutions from the regional offices of the Ghana Education Service. Besides being audited by external auditors, the accounts of the technical institutions are scrutinized by both the Principals of the institutions and internal auditors of the Ghana Education Service to ensure that the moneys allocated are properly and efficiently utilized in accordance with the Financial And Accounting Instructions For Secondary Schools, Training Colleges And Educational Units Issued By the Ghana Education Service.

In the case of part-time students in public technical institutions and all students in private technical and vocational institutions, the institutions charge them fees to cover costs of tuition, materials for training, and other expenses.

Funds allocated to some institutions and levels of education in Ghana over the period 1991-1993 are shown in Table 6 at Appendix 'F'. As can be seen from the Table, a substantial amount of the recurrent budget goes into personal emoluments. Thus the money left for the procurement of equipment, handtools and materials for training falls far short of what is needed for effective delivery of technical and vocational education and training.

It seems that in Ghana the financing of technical and vocational education has virtually been left to Government alone, which should not be the case. It is considered appropriate that this should be the concern of all who utilize the products of technical and vocational education, especially industry and business. Accordingly, a recommendation has been made to Government by the National co-ordinating Committee for Technical and Vocational Education and training (NACVET) that the industrial and commercial organizations, should be asked by law to make a financial contribution for the development and promotion of technical and vocational education and training, so as to enable it to meet the present and future technological needs of industry and commerce.

LINKS WITH INDUSTRIES



Close ties with industry and business are the distinguishing characteristics of technical and vocational education. These ties should affect all aspects of the work of technical and vocational institutions, including the courses, syllabuses, staffing and equipment,

In Ghana the importance of these links is recognized by the Ghana Education Service. Consequently, on the recommendation of the Ghana Education Service, the technical and vocational institutions have adequate representation of industrial interests on their governing bodies and some of them have set up course advisory committees with representatives from industry and business, among others.

To ensure that the content of courses run in the technical and vocational institutions are relevant to the needs of industry and business and so can meet the changing demands of the labour market, industry and business are involved in the development of courses and related activities at the institutions in the public sector. Accordingly, the course advisory committees advise on the content of courses, relating it closely to the needs of industry and business,

Some heads of technical and vocational institutions foster goods relationships by encouraging the local firms to use institutional premises for exhibitions, talks, etc. during open days, representatives of industry and business are encouraged to come into the institutions to see their facilities and interact with staff and students. Reciprocally, visits to industries by staff and students of the institutions are arranged from time to time. Specialists are invited from industry to give talks to student in the technical and vocational institutions.

In the area of continuing education, the institutions make provision for workers in industry and business to attend classes on part-time or bloc-release basis to update and upgrade themselves and hence improve upon their qualifications.

The value of attachment of both staff and students to industrial business establishments is recognized by the technical institutions, and so they try, with varying degrees of success, to attach their staff and students to such establishments. Industrial Liaison Officers have been appointed in the technical institutions to see to the arrangement of these attachments, among other things,

Arrangements are in progress for the technical and vocational institutions to use simplified form of tracer studies and other items of information from the labour market, under the direction of their Industrial Liaison Officers, to assess the relevance, effectiveness and efficiency of their courses. By using Labour Market Information (LMI), they will be able to appraise and review their programmes. The LMI will also enable the technical and vocational institutions to know which courses are in demand and what to include in their syllabuses.

The syllabuses for the various courses run in the technical institutions under the administration of the Ghana Education Service are reviewed every three to five years to bring them in line with educational requirements and with modern developments in the trade areas in industry and business and the employment market.

In this connection, institutions are encouraged and supported to offer bridging courses each year for capable and desirous adults who wish to follow trades courses/programmes but do not have the requisite entry requirements.

It has been found necessary to encourage, motivate and assist pupils to stay in school to complete at least their Basic Education so as to minimize the number of adults who may need Adult Basic Education in the future.

Every effort is being made to encourage and support the Technical Institutes, Polytechnics, Universities and other institutions of higher learning which are engaged in relevant continuing educational activities/programmes not only to strengthen their activities but also to diversify them.

CAREER GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

Guidance and Counselling constitutes an important aspect of education, and so it is necessary to enhance its development to enable it play its vital role in any educational system. Guidance and Counselling helps individual students to assess and appreciate their potential and tendency towards growth, career development and self-actualization.

To make guidance and Counselling services available in all educational institutions in Ghana, the Ghana Education Service has now included guidance and Counselling in the teacher education syllabuses, so that all teachers coming from the Teacher Training Colleges may be able to give guidance and counselling to their pupils and students. Guidance and Counselling has also been included in the curriculum of the Faculty of Education of the University of Cape Coast and that of the university College of Education, Winneba.

The Ghana Education Service has established Guidance and Counselling units in all the regional and district education offices to provide and co-ordinate Guidance and Counselling services in the educational institutions.

To help detect learning defects which may lead to the phenomenon of early drop-outs, the Ghana Education Service plans to develop diagnostic tests appropriately normed for use in Ghana at various levels of education. Such instruments in the hands of competent Guidance Counsellors will facilitate early detection of special needs of their pupils and students for appropriate intervention strategies to be planned for them.

In the light of this, Special Education has been made a subject in the syllabus of Teacher Training Colleges in the country. This is to enable the teacher trainees to acquire the needed skills to detect and handle handicapped cases properly.

Some second-cycle institutions under the Ghana Education Service have Guidance Counsellors and Co-ordinators? Steps will be taken to ensure that the rest are provided with qualified guidance personnel. Regular in-service training courses are organized for all the guidance personnel in the regional and district offices and those in the institutions.

In the Technical Institutes there are Industrial Liaison Officers working closely with the guidance personnel to arrange industrial visits for the students, as well as industrial attachments for both teachers and students.

The need has been felt to intensify educational and vocational guidance for schools. In this connection, steps are being taken to make both boys and girls aware, right from Primary Schools, of the equal opportunities for technical and vocational education programmes for both sexes.

Collaboration with the Ministry of Employment and Social Welfare

The Labour Department of the Ministry of Employment and Social Welfare has a unit known as National Employment Service which, among other things, gives vocational guidance and employment counselling. The Ghana Education Service provides guidance services in the schools in collaboration with this unit.

Both the Labour Department and the Ghana Education Service provide facilities for vocational guidance to young persons in the Junior Secondary Schools. They help them to make the right choice of programme, to select the elective subjects to study in the Senior Secondary School, Technical Institute or other second-cycle institution and to acquire the right skills for employment. The activities undertaken by these two organizations to assist the Junior Secondary School pupils include:

i. dissemination of information regarding occupations by means of:

- talks;
- films on people at work;
- visits to various places of work;
- group discussions;

ii. individual vocational guidance interviews;
iii. job placement;
iv. review of progress of young workers;
v. creating awareness in the students of the opportunities for further education in adult life.

Under an arrangment between the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Employment and Social Welfare, the Ghana Education Service and the Labour Department have each a set of specific responsibilities in the area of career guidance and counselling.

The Ghana Education Service's responsibilities include:

- educational guidance in respect of school courses;

- further education, scholarships, etc.;

- preliminary vocational guidance including dissemination of occupational information, discussions and visits;

- provision of information about abilities and attainments of prospective school-leavers; and

- training of careers counsellors.

The responsibilities of the labour Department include:

- provision of occupational and employment information;
- vocational guidance, e.g. giving talks on careers to students;
- placement in employment;
- review of progress of the young persons in employment.

THE INFORMAL SECTOR

In Ghana, as in other developing countries, employment in the informal sector outstrips that in the modern sector. Training in this sector is important and needs to be well-thought out and streamlined.

Traditional apprenticeship is the main method of training workers in this sector. In addition to their attachment to a craftsman's workshop, the apprentices undertake part-time courses in technical and vocational institutions to supplement their practical training.

Training for the Informal Sector

The Government has realized that it is the informal sector that can really contribute to the growth of the economy, and so it gives this sector the needed support. Accordingly, with the assistance of the World Bank, the Government has initiated training programmes in some selected trade areas for apprentices as well as master craftsmen in the informal sector to help them improve upon their performances. For example, the Ministry of Education, has embarked on a Transport Rehabilitation Project for master crafstmen and apprentices in the informal sector in various trades in the motor vehicle field.

a) Under this Project, a series of short intensive courses are being run by some selected public technical institutions for selected master craftsmen and apprentices who are members of the Ghana National Association of Garages (GNAG).

b) A competency-based teraching/learning approach is being used throughout the course. This method makes it possible to teach both literate and illiterate persons in the same workshop as well as classroom. Indeed, a few illiterates have been atending the course.

c) The duration of the course for the master craftsmen is 6 weeks, while that for the apprentices is 12 weeks. At the end of their training, each apprentice is given a set of tools to enable him start work on his or her own.

In addition to the above assistance from the World Bank, another support for a project dubbed "Vocational Skills And Informal Sector Project" is being vigorously pursued by the Ministry of Education for the benefit of master craftsmen and apprentices in the following five priority self-employable trade areas:

a) Refrigeration and Air-conditioning
b) Electrical Installation
c) Tailoring and Dressmaking
d) Blockwork and Concreting
e) Carpentry and joinery

In the case of this Project, the master craftsmen will be given a 2-week intensive course in modern technology in their respective trade areas. These courses for the craftsmen are designed to help them improve upon their performance as well as to be better trainers.

A 12-week training programme wil be run for apprentices whose masters will benefit from the 2-week intensive training to instil in them good work habits and impart to them technologies which they would not otherwise acquire. The courses will be run by 40 selected private and public technical institutions in various parts of the country.

a) Basic elements of entrepreneurship are included in the programmes for both the apprentices and the master craftsmen. At the end of their training, each apprentice will be supplied with a set of tools to enable him or her start work on his or her own.

b) A competency-based teaching/learning method will be used in the delivery of technical and vocational education and training to both master craftsmen and apprentices who may be selected for courses/programmes under this Project.

c) Selection of the master craftsmen and apprentices will be done through their respective trade associations.

The Technical and Vocational Education Division of the Ghana Education Service intends to revive the use of well-equipped "mobile workshop" vans and other resources of the technical institutions to provide further training to both apprentices and master craftsmen already engaged in the informal sector. This system of training by the use of "mobile workshop" vans was operated by one of the Technical Institutes in Ghana for a few years, but it is now proposed to extend it to other technical institutions in the country.

EXAMINATIONS AND ACCREDITATION

Examinations and trade-testing for technical and vocational education and training in Ghana have been and are still being conducted by various bodies, agencies and institutions. This has resulted in the award of different certificates of varying standards; hence the problem of establishing equivalences for the various and numerous certificates issued by the various bodies all purported to be indicating achievement of the levels of education and training.

Establishing of Examining boards

To ensure uniformity and common standards in all aspects of examinations connected with technical and vocational education and training, the Government of Ghana is taking steps to establish two examining bodies, namely:

a) National Board for Professional And Technician Examinations (NAPTEX) - This Board shall be responsible for the formulation and administration of schemes of examinations, assessment, evaluation, certification and standards for skills competencies as well as syllabuses competencies for all non-university institutions (such as Polytechnics and similar institutions) at tertiary level, the professional bodies and private institutions with accreditation by the National Acreditation Board.

b) National Technical and Vocational Examinations Board (NATVEB) - This Board, which shall operate under the aegis of NACVET, shall harmonize the assessment and standardization procedures of the technical and vocational education system hotherto provided by various organizations in the country, administer schemes of examinations, assessment, evaluation, accreditation and certification for programmes and skills competencies below non-university tertiary level of training.

The nucleus of the Board shall be made up of the Trade Testing Department of the National Vocational Training Institute (NVTI), the Technical Examinations Unit of the Ghana Education Service (GES), the Government Secretarial Schools of the Office of the head of Civil Service (OHCS) and other examining and trade testing bodies.

FORECAST OF THE FUTURE SITUATION

There are several shortcomings and deficiencies in the existing technical and vocational education system in Ghana. However, it is hoped that with the implementation of the steps currently being taken by Government, the system will be developed to such an extent that it will provide quality manpower for industry and commerce and generally make for economic progress.

There will be qualitative improvement in the technical manpower available for use by various sectors of the economy. Since the technical institutions will run courses and programmes geared closely to the manpower needs of industry and commerce, there is likely to be a regular and adequate supply of the needed technical manpower at the various levels.

One of the major causes of unemployment in Ghana is the existence of a large number of unemployed young men and women who have had the benefit of only general education up to the basic level, and so are fit for only white-collar jobs, which in most cases are non-existent. However, when the technical and vocational education system is developed, a good number of the Ghanaian youth can opt for technical and vocational education so as to be equipped with job-oriented skills. Such a situation will help to reduce the level of unemployment among the youth, more so when many of them will be capable of being self-employed.

The products of an improved technical and vocational education system will help to strengthen and sustain Ghana's growing national economy by helping industry and commerce to achieve their main objectives of producing goods and providing services that the people need. There will be improvement in the living standards of the people in the areas of nutrition, health, housing, education and welfare, thus bringing about an acceptable quality of life for everyone.

When the technical vocational education system in Ghana is improved, skills training can be given in traditional as well as non-traditional areas. Therefore, more goods will be produced for home consumption as well as for export in both the traditional and non-traditional areas, thus earning more foreign exchange for the country.

EXISTING PROBLEMS



There are vast opportunities for technical and vocational education and training in Ghana in terms of the large number of public and private technical institutions. Sadly, however, the impact of these on national development has not been significant due to a number of constraints, including the following:

a) The people of Ghana in general put a low value on technical and vocational education and training. Their attitude to this type of education is that it is inferior to academic education. As a result of this attitude, it has been the less bright pupils from first-cycle educational institutional who have often opted for technical and vocational education courses.

b) The education and vocational guidance given to pupils/students in school, especially at the basic education level, is inadequate.

c) Available funds for carrying out programmes of technical and vocational education and training are inadequate. Most of the cost of administration and training in the public segment of the technical and vocational education system is borne by Government and, to some extent, by donor agencies. There is little or no support from the private sector, financial procedures are cumbersome and the budgetary system is unreliable, thus adversely affecting the funding of technical and vocational education in the public sector.

d) The existing infrastructure for technical and vocational education in terms of buildings, equipment and tools is deteriorating and inadequate. Most of the technical and vocational institutions do not have well-equipped worksh