Introduction



UNEVOC Studies in Technical and Vocational Education 11

International Project on Technical and Vocational Education
UNESCO
1997

ED-97/WS-58

Published in 1997 by the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
7, Place de Fontenoy
75352 Paris 07
FRANCE

UNEVOC Studies in Technical and Vocational Education

1.	Policies and Guidelines for Educational and Vocational Guidance (English and Chinese, 1994);
2.	New Training Technologies (English and Chinese, 1995);
3.	A Guide for Evaluation of Technical and Vocational Curricula (English, 1995);
4.	New Perspectives on Assessment (English and Chinese, 1995);
5.	Functional Literacy, Workplace Literacy and Technical and Vocational Education: Interfaces and Policy Perspectives (English, 1995);
6.	Vocational Guidance for Equal Access and Opportunity for Girls and Women in Technical and Vocational Education (English, 1996);
7.	Promotion of the Equal Access of Girls and Women to Technical and Vocational Education (English, 1995);
8.	Current Trends and Issues in Technical and Vocational Education (English, 1996);
9.	Technical and Vocational Education for Rural Development: Delivery Patterns (English, 1997);
10.	Promotion of Linkage between Technical and Vocational Education and the World of Work (English, 1997);
11.	Training of Teachers/Trainers in Technical and Vocational Education (English, 1997)

Foreword



This UNEVOC publication is addressed to policy-makers, administrators, planners, teachers, specialists and all those interested in the issue of teachers' training in technical and vocational education.

Compiled by the Section for Technical and Vocational Education, UNESCO, Paris, this monograph includes the Final Report of the UNEVOC International Round Table on Training of Teachers/Trainers in Technical and Vocational Education held in Curitiba, Brazil from 7-10 April 1997 and selected discussion papers submitted by the participants of this event.

UNESCO wishes to express its appreciation to all those who contributed their work to this publication.

The views expressed in the papers of this monograph are those of the individuals concerned and do not necessarily reflect those of UNESCO. The designations employed and the presentation of the material do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the UNESCO Secretariat concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concentrating the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

International Round Table on Training of Teachers/Trainers in Technical and Vocational Education

(Curitiba, Brazil, 7-10 April 1997)

Final Report

1. INTRODUCTION

The social and economical changes have significant implications for technical and vocational education. It has considerable ramifications for the teaching/learning processes to be applied and the concomitant expertise of the teachers working in this important sector of education. This inevitably must flow on to the nature and content of teacher education programmes.

In accordance with UNESCO's Programme and Budget for 1996-1997 and within the framework of its International Project on Technical and Vocational Education (UNEVOC), an International Round Table on Training of Teachers/Trainers in Technical and Vocational Education was held, in collaboration with the Brazilian Federal Centre for Technological Education (Paran? at Curitiba, Brazil, from 7-10 April 1997.

The main objective of this activity was to assist Member States' efforts to improve their staff training in technical and vocational education, by facilitating the exchange of experience and ideas, as well as strengthening co-operation between Member States in this field.

The Round Table aimed to address the issues related to technical and vocational teacher training from three dimensions:

· The new technological, economic, political, social and educational developments that have taken place in the past ten years and their impact on technical and vocational education;

· The implication of these developments for technical and vocational education, both formal and non-formal;

· The ramifications of these developments for technical and vocational education, both formal and non-formal.

The meeting was attended by senior technical and vocational education experts from Brazil, Jamaica, Kenya, Pakistan, Poland, as well as representatives from Colombo Plan Staff College for Technician Education (CPSC) and the Commonwealth of Learning (COL).

2. MAJOR TRENDS, ISSUES AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS

The world of work is in a constant state of flux and change. Technological development is introducing new skills and making others redundant, the high rate of unemployment is demanding new training and retraining, the shift from rural to urban employment requires a change in competencies and life style, migration and the displacement of peoples around the globe need a reorientation to a different sphere of the world of work; all these, and other factors, demand commitment to and provision for life-long technical and vocational education. The world of work requires that its participants must be given the opportunity for constant personal and vocational development if we are to avoid the plague of unemployed and redundant workers. But lifelong learning requires personal commitment and motivation, which will only come from such learning being rewarded. Further, all our efforts to make continuing technical and vocational education a reality in our societies will fail unless people develop the attitudes and values that encourage them to make the commitments necessary to engage in this area of education. Along with such attitudes must be developed the self-directed learning skills necessary.

Much has been said and written about initial and continuing technical and vocational education; not as much has been done to provide for it. Nevertheless, job change is becoming essential for most people and the prospect of working in five or more different occupations in a life lime is becoming the norm. This obviously has significant implications for the establishing of career paths and for the obtaining of sufficient experience within an occupation to be able to move up into senior management positions.

Aspects of technical and vocational teacher education programmes were discussed in the various papers that are appended to this report. The paper by Dr C. K. Basu addressed a number of the various issues that are significant in the Asia-Pacific countries. Dr R. B. Hobart's paper put forward a suggested technical and vocational teacher education programme that was considered by the International Round Table. The most significant issues relating to the training of teachers/trainers in technical and vocational education were given in a description of a project undertaken by Dr Mavis Bird of the Commonwealth of Learning. A detailed analysis of the training of teachers in technical and vocational education in Poland was given by Dr Stefania Szczurkowska. An in-depth analysis of recent innovations in the training of teachers/trainers in technical and vocational education and training in Asia and the Pacific, was given by Mr M. A. Qureshi. A comprehensive description of instructor training given by the Vocational Training Development Institute, within The Heart/Trust Training Agency in Jamaica, was given by Dr Lurliene Miller. An African perspective to the challenges and prospects in the training of technical and vocational education teachers/trainers was given by Prof. B. W. Kerre. Factors affecting technical and vocational education and technical and vocational teacher education in Pakistan were analysed be Dr Muhammad Hadi Gyavri. These papers led to extensive discussion and debate on various issues addressed within them, and raised other concomitant issues.

During the process of the discussion and debate the following questions were seen to be pivotal to the issues addressing technical and vocational teacher education and trainer-training.

1. What are the changes in the world of work that must be addressed by technical and vocational education to ensure the genuine implementation of life-long learning, life-long career development and life-long employment?

2. How can technical and vocational education co-operate with the world of employment and economic production to ensure the relevance, and employability, of human resources?

3. How can technical and vocational education encourage the assumption of responsibility by the various entities within the world of work for the protection of the environment?

4. How should technical and vocational education articulate with general education, higher education, and with training within the workplace in order to support the maintenance of people as effective and efficient employees within the world of work?

5. How should technical and vocational education support the initiatives of non-formal education, small business enterprise and the self-employed with respect to the effective and efficient performance of employees within the productive process?

6. What teaching/learning strategies need to be supported, or developed and implemented, by technical and vocational education to increase its contribution to the efficiency of the world of work and to the fair and just distribution of the wealth generated by the world of work?

7. What are the policies and legislation that need to be developed and implemented by governments to support the universal availability and effectiveness of technical and vocational education?

8. What financial support needs to be given by governments, and other entities, to formal and informal adult and continuing education for the world of work?

9. How can education for the world of work contribute to the removing of the disparities of economic return from employment - among countries and within countries - stemming from such factors as sex discrimination, exploitation of the disadvantaged, the internationalising of work, the restructuring of economies, migration, etc.?

10. How can technical and vocational education contribute significantly to the social effectiveness, social responsibility, personal actualisation and the empowerment of people within the arena of work?

Some of this discussion and debate, with recommendations, is recorded below. Only what was felt to be the most significant factors are addressed in this summary. More detail is given in the papers that are appended.

2.1 Socio-political Contexts of Technical and Vocational Teacher Education

Without question, governments are an essential partner in the national responsibilities for providing an effective and efficient system of education for the world of work. This includes both preparation for the world of work, and maintaining efficiency within it. Thus, technical and vocational education, and relevant and effective education for the non-formal sector are all included and have a role within this function of preparation and maintenance. Further, the responsibilities of prevocational education as a vital component of effective education for the world of work is also within its orbit. Governments should assume a leadership role in this area of social responsibility. They should encourage and support the initiatives of other members of this partnership. They should ensure that all members of the partnership play an active and constructive role. Governments have a primary role of ensuring that efforts within this area of human endeavour are coordinated, and that resources are not wasted by unnecessary duplication. They are able to initiate national planning that attends to the disadvantaged, to equal opportunity, to those with minimal power and thrust in the society, as well as to the design of and commitment to long-term plans for educational development within the nation.

There is a healthy development occurring around the world. That is, governments are setting up commissions to recommend the legislative structure needed to support effectively and efficiently all areas of education for the world of work, and to ensure that the various areas of support are co-ordinated. Long-term planning is essential, and it is imperative that such planning is supported by the legislative framework needed to implement it. Governments have the primary role to play in this area of responsibility. This includes all levels of government -national, state, regional, local - depending upon the constitution of the nation. If there are different levels of government involved, it is imperative that these different levels work together to ensure that cooperation and mutual support characterise their individual efforts.

The social, political and economic context of technical and vocational teacher education were thoroughly addressed in Prof. Kerre's paper. They were also addressed in various sections of the paper by Mr M. A. Qureshi. Discussion from these papers led to the following observations:

Governments must institute regulations and enforce mechanisms for technical and vocational teacher education. In this context, it was suggested that governments should allow technical and vocational education teachers to undertake consulting which should raise their standards of knowledge and skills, keep them up-to-date, and supplement their incomes sufficiently to make them more satisfied with their salaries.

It was felt that in this socio-political arena, in many countries there is a need for a second liberation. The first occurred when the colonial powers departed. There is still a need for the establishing of genuine democratic decision making, which was indeed the intent of the first liberation from colonial powers. The problem of human conflict presents itself in this context. Of course, when there is no peace, there is no education. Thus, a stable and peaceful socio-political environment is vital.

It was felt that there tends to be, in many developing countries, an economic malaise stemming from both internal and external forces. Thus, there is a need for strong, determined lobbying groups to be established for technical and vocational teacher education. For technical and vocational education and technical and vocational teacher education and trainer-training to succeed the political will must exist. This may be established by positive statements of the benefits that are to be gained, backed up with the statistics that are now becoming available. These statistics give clear evidence of the considerable value to the economy and the society of effective technical and vocational education and technical and vocational teacher education.

In some developing nations, the principal of "user pays" for technical and vocational education makes it prohibitive for families to afford it. Thus technical and vocational education is the victim of this cost-sharing that makes education more expensive.

It was also stressed that in the socio-political arena a legal context for technical and vocational education and technical and vocational teacher education and trainer-training is vital for them to become equitable entity with academia. Thus, more attention must be given to what should constitute this legal context, and recommendations made for it to be established and enforced by appropriate authorities. In addition, there are both external and internal forces that are determining much that relates to technical and vocational education. Thus, the questions must be asked: "who sets the technical and vocational teacher education agenda?", and "who are the stake holders?" It is recognised that both external and internal forces must be addressed in ways that are acceptable to all stake holders.

2.2 Partnership - Linkage with Industry

It would seem unnecessary to emphasise the role of the employer in helping to meet the need for effective technical and vocational education and technical and vocational teacher education. Yet, in many parts of the world there is a traditional concept that such education is the responsibility of educational institutions, and of the government. However, it is being increasingly realised that such a narrow concept of those responsible for this area of education, does not meet its needs. The world of work has a very significant part to play. It must be the focus of the competencies needed to perform effectively within employment. It must provide effective work experience for learners within educational institutions if their learning is to be relevant. It must provide on-going work experience for technical and vocational education teachers and trainers in order to keep their knowledge and skills up-to-date. It must invest significant resources in education and training in order to maintain the competent work force it needs. It must co-operate with governments so as to support national plans for economic development, one component of which is a well educated work force. It must co-operate with unions in order to ensure that the social and economic principles espoused by the nation are implemented. It must support, to the extent necessary, its employees in their pursuit of further knowledge and skills for their personal fulfillment and for their securing of satisfying employment. Thus, the employing world is a primary partner in the endeavour to deliver effective and efficient technical and vocational education.

The need was emphasised for technical and vocational teacher education to work continually towards increased co-operation with industry. Among other benefits, this was seen as an important way of establishing relevance in technical and vocational education programmes. It was emphasised again and again that there must be more than a linkage with industry, rather industry and the education sector should be partners. This may need to be legislated, rather than left to goodwill. Incentives, such as taxation benefit would assist this process.

In the discussion on linkage with industry, the question was asked as to what precisely is being referred to, in some economies, when we use the words "industry" and "employers"? It was hard to retain a stable industry base for long in some countries. It tends to shift with the economic factors that prevail. Thus low cost production may be undertaken in those countries that have low salaries. This may cause developing countries to become the dumping ground for cheap production and the exploitation of cheaper labour. The global economy allows industry to move around the world and to go from country to country seeking lower costs of production. This may make it well neigh impossible to determine just what is industry in a particular context. It may shift any day in pursuit of lower costs.

When seeking to identify industry, even some of the so-called "formal sector" is really "informal" because it is often not clearly known who constitutes this sector. Sometimes for reasons of financial benefit, entities within the sector seek to keep their identities secret. Thus, it becomes impossible to provide appropriate training for a sector when it is not known who really constitutes the sector. This is true in certain developing world contexts where there is a continual shift of enterprises from one country to another in order to obtain cheaper costs of production.

Although close links with industry contribute to the relevance of the teacher's knowledge and skills, it does also increase the risk of loosing such persons to industry. However, it was suggested that although there appeared to be a loss when people that were trained to become effective teachers and trainers shifted to employment in enterprises; over time, these people had value to the technical and vocational education system in that they became sympathetic links with that system. Their presence in industry ensures that there was a significant cadre of people in industry who understand technical and vocational education and can support it in a meaningful way.

It was to be regretted that some areas of industry look for unqualified people because of short-term benefits. This area of industry may employ qualified people. But it tends to under utilise highly qualified people in order to minimise their remuneration. Such industry must be persuaded that genuinely qualified people will benefit them in the long run: especially in the context of the global economy and world competition.

Frequently, small business enterprises are not really interested in training. They would prefer to poach trained people from larger enterprises. In this context, we have to examine carefully what type of teacher training, if any, is being given to trainers in small business enterprise. This may be very little or none at all. Yet this sector is the largest sector of employers, the world over.

2.3 Technical and Vocational Education Curricula

Throughout the various discussion times it was recognised that it is hard to differentiate between technical and vocational education, with its teachers, as such, and technical and vocational teacher education. For example, the curricula of technical and vocational education is, of course, vitally important to the relevance ascribed to such education by the world of work. However, such curricula are also a significant determinant of the type of programmes needed to select and train effective technical and vocational education teachers. Thus, some time was spent on technical and vocational education curricula and concomitant issues.

If we are to apply credit for prior learning; if we are to allow for open entry and increased access to learning; if we are to encourage life-long learning and recurrent education; if we are to support a career path that is supported by both horizontal and vertical occupational development and change; then the curricula needs to be sufficiently flexible to allow meaningful entrance to and exit from the learning process.

A detailed analysis of changes in the world of work and their implications for technical and vocational education programmes was given by Dr R. B. Hobart in his paper appended. Implications of these changes were also addressed in the context of an economy in transition in Part 6 of the paper by Dr Szczurkowska. Some of the specific issues addressed in those papers were taken up for discussion in relation to the curricula for technical and vocational education and technical and vocational teacher education. These particular issues are addressed below.

The globalisation of work, the continual restructuring of economies, the greater mobility of workers, the urbanisation of societies, and other such factors, also impact upon career prospects. These make recurrent education for the world of work, and life-long technical and vocational education essential. However, the curriculum content and teaching/learning systems essential for this area of education, in many parts of the world, are not well developed.

The importance of making the technical and vocational education curricula relevant through undertaking occupational analyses, needs analyses and task analyses - in conjunction with industry - was seen as vital. These processes should ensure that the knowledge, skills and attitudes that are required by the ultimate clients are being taught. However, the ability to undertake these processes must be an outcome of technical and vocational teacher education. Thus, there are obvious implications for the selection and training of technical teachers and for trainer-training.

In the light of the vicissitudes of the world of work, it was suggested that greater flexibility in the application of the knowledge, skills and attitudes that are essential to the transfer of learning and that must be developed in the general education process. Training offered within industry is understandably productivity driven, while the aspect of transferability of skills and knowledge is best accommodated within an industry/education partnership. Again, with the phenomenon of job change and the restructuring of economies, a greater emphasis is being placed on the need for generic knowledge, skills and attitudes that are essential to the transfer of learning and that must be developed in the general education process.

Within the context of the curricula for technical and vocational education, the problem of environmental education was raised in section 4.6 of Dr C. K. Basu's paper. It was considered that this should be a core component. Further, it was suggested that environmental education should be made relevant to specific occupational and skill areas; for example, the disposal of hazardous wastes. This recommendation requires that within technical and vocational teacher education the knowledge necessary for teachers to address such issues within their own teaching programmes be included, but also that sufficient emphasis be given to heighten the perception of the teachers to the significance of environmental education in their own teaching programmes.

There was some debate between the importance of generic knowledge and skills being an essential part of technical and vocational education curricula, and the importance of job-specific knowledge and skills. It was suggested that some enterprises recruit people with existing knowledge and skills because they are unwilling to undertake the cost of further training Thus, they tend to want job-specific training. To counter this tendency, it was deemed to be imperative that incentives, and other regulatory mechanisms, such as through tax exemption, be introduced to encourage enterprises to invest in training. On the other hand, it was also recognised that some enterprises were willing to orient a skilled person to the specifics of in-house skills. Such enterprises would prefer people who had sufficient generic skills to transfer these to other organisational work situations, or to other areas of the trade or profession within the organization. This ambivalence is difficult for technical and vocational education to address.

Some discussion we had was on the issue of the degree of comprehensiveness needed to address effectively a particular area in the technical and vocational education curricula. Entrepreneurship was cited as a case in point. Some curricula dealt with this issue only briefly. This was because the aim of the particular curriculum was to arouse "awareness" of such an issue, and encourage those who identified with it to pursue it in greater depth. The other school of thought felt it essential to deal with such issues in sufficient depth to develop definite knowledge and skills that could be successfully applied. It was ultimately agreed that such decisions could only be made in the light of the performance expectations of the graduates of such programmes of learning. This reinforced the assertion made above that there is a need to make such a careful analyses of relevant work situations in the developing and amending of technical and vocational education curricula as to ensure that technical and vocational education is perceived to be relevant.

It was also advocated that the curricula should be designed to develop in the learner a "work awareness", that is, a self-questioning attitude that asks: "What else could I do with my skills?" Thus a person losing a job should not then feel they are unemployable: but rather, search for other outlets for their competencies. This led to the concept that people should not aim at permanent employment. That was considered to be unrealistic in the global economy and changing job markets. Rather, people should receive the type of technical and vocational education that gives them the competencies to further their education as necessary; and, thus, makes them confident that they are permanently employable.

2.4 Status of Technical and Vocational Education Teachers

There is a universal need to lift the status of these teachers within the educational arena. This is directly dependent upon the status and value of technical and vocational education itself being lifted within societies as a whole. A significant factor in achieving this goal is to establish a much closer articulation between technical and vocational education and university education than exists in most countries at present. University education must no longer command such a status as to bias the wage reward structures within the economy. It is imperative that the distribution of the generated wealth of the economy encourages participation in the wide spectrum of education for the world of work, and not just in the narrow sphere of 'higher-order' professions. Education for the world of work will not achieve its national goals until technical and vocational education is given the status it needs to attract a sufficient clientele to meet the manpower needs of the nation.

Coupled with this is the need to establish better economic rewards for undertaking technical and vocational education programmes. Again, the teaching personnel within technical education institutions need to be well qualified in both their area of specialty and pedagogical skills, and have had sufficient and relevant world of work experience. Further, they need to keep their knowledge and skills up to date by periods of further experience within the world of work. Many of these institutions suffer from insufficient resources to purchase the complex and expensive equipment needed for their workshops and laboratories. Thus, a close liaison with employing institutions in the work of work needs to be established so that effective on-the-job experience programmes for students may be worked out co-operatively between the education institution and the employing enterprise.

However, there was a degree of cynicism expressed with respect to the status of technical and vocational education and technical and vocational teacher education and trainer-training. It was felt that recognition for the need to lift the status of this area of education was often verbalised; but, in the final analysis, little that is really significant is done about it. However, it was thoroughly agreed that the lifting of such status is vital to its success.

A significant problem to the achieving of higher status for technical and vocational teachers and trainers was seen to be their wages. In some circumstances, these are restricted by government regulations and are tied into official salary levels in the public service. To counter this problem, it was suggested that other conditions of technical and vocational education teaching are often more attractive than similar conditions prevailing in industry employment. However, these conditions - holidays, work hours, superannuation etc. - were sometimes not taken into account by teachers when they made comparisons between themselves and those employed in industry. Thus, it was seen to be important that the positive aspects of technical and vocational education teaching and trainer-training should be emphasised so as to woo people to the profession, and not to alienate them with too much negative communication and criticism.

It was recognised that the problem of status, in any arena, is deeply entrenched in a society. In most societies, there is an inequitable status between jobs, such as that of a professor and that of an artisan. A recognisable equity process is required. This could be partly overcome if higher education was made more readily available for graduates from technical and vocational education and technical and vocational teacher education. This reinforces the claim that there is a pressing need for a greater degree of articulation between higher education and technical and vocational education, especially in the area of technical and vocational teacher education.

The constant change in the knowledge and skills required for a particular occupation, and the need for frequent change in employment, makes it imperative that a person has the basis for developing further knowledge and skills as quickly and effectively as possible. This requires a sufficient knowledge base for developing an understanding of other related areas of knowledge, that is, "generic knowledge" which includes, among other things, basic scientific, mathematics, and technological principles. This is why the increasing articulation between general education and technical and vocational education is so very important.

For genuine career paths to be established, and for the developing to a maximum of the potential of individuals, higher education around the world must become more open in its recognition of prior learning and in its accrediting of learning gained from programmes offered in other institutions that are not part of the higher education arena. The resistance of higher education in many countries to this greater degree of articulation with other educational institutions stems frequently from tradition, conservatism and the desire to preserve status, rather than from genuine educational concerns.

The issue of articulation among relevant educational institutions was addressed in detail in Part 3 of the paper by Dr Lurliene Miller.

2.5 Models of Technical and Vocational Teacher Education

Technical and vocational teacher education must be analysed in terms of the three possible models that are applied. The first is where appropriate people from industry who have been employed in their trade or profession for some years are selected for technical and vocational education teaching. These people have industry experience but no formal qualifications. They must then be given pedagogical training and in some cases, formal technical qualifications. The second model is where concurrent training is offered to a person through which the person is given the technical knowledge and skills needed for teaching, and the pedagogical training at the same time. These people lack industry experience and may find it difficult to make their teaching relevant to the real world of work. Further, they may find it difficult to keep their knowledge and skills up-to-date by obtaining some periods of work placement within a relevant occupation. The third model is where employees with some years of experience in a relevant work situation and who already have the necessary technical qualifications are brought into technical and vocational education teaching. These people primarily need pedagogical knowledge and skills to function as teachers. They may also have the advantage of gaining graduate status for further study. This third model was thoroughly endorsed by the International Round Table as the preferred model, and should be adopted, as far as is possible, around the world.

However, it was recognised that it is difficult to entice such people into teaching, given the low comparative wages with industry. It also had to be admitted that a significant number of such people who were well trained and who came into technical and vocational education teaching, often returned to industry or to the private sector of the technical and vocational education system. This resulted from their greater expertise and their capacity to share their knowledge and skills effectively within industry through their pedagogical development. Even though this may occur, it was felt that in the long term, this does have some benefit to technical and vocational education teaching as it creates real links between providers of technical and vocational education and industry itself.

In this context, the question was debated as to what is really meant when we claim that technical and vocational education is losing valuable teachers to industry? Perhaps it might be considered that when people go back to industry, they are not really lost. Rather, it is a form of nation building. However, when people move out of the sector for which they were trained, they are lost in the sense that it requires a total training of someone else to prepare the person for that sector.

2.6 Technical and Vocational Teacher Education Programmes

The focal points for the professional responsibilities of technical and vocational education teachers and trainers embrace formal technical and vocational education institutions, private technical and vocational education providers, training units within government and nongovernment organizations, community education centres, and supervisors and others who must assume some training responsibilities as a part of their occupational role. In the light of the fact that the success of teaching/learning programmes is highly dependent upon the effectiveness of teachers and trainers, there is a great need for the provision of effective teacher training and trainer-training programmes. For those whose primary occupational responsibilities are not training, but who nevertheless have some responsibilities for training, programmes to assist them with these training responsibilities will need to be delivered through strategies that accommodate the other demands and commitments that such people have.

Suggestions of what should be included in programmes for technical and vocational teacher education are given by Dr Szczurkowska in Part 2 of her paper. They are also thoroughly analysed in the light of significant changes in the world of work within the Asian and Pacific region by Mr Qureshi. A description of the programme offered in Jamaica by the Vocational Training Development Institute is given by Dr Lurliene Miller. Dr R. B. Hobart offers a suggested outline for such a programme in his paper. The issues addressed in these papers led to the following conclusions.

It was generally agreed that there is a vital need to address common standards for technical and vocational education teachers, both nationally and internationally. This is a primary responsibility of technical and vocational teacher education programmes.

In terms of learning materials, whether modules, distance education materials, competency-based materials, or other specific programmes, it was agreed that these cannot be transferred from one arena into another without the adaptation to the specific conditions that prevail in each arena in which they are applied.

A thorough analysis of the pedagogical knowledge and the skills required by technical and vocational education teachers, and the means for satisfying these needs through utilising distance education, was given in the paper by Dr Mavis Bird, of The Commonwealth of Learning. Discussion from this paper led to the conclusion that it is important that consideration be given to how distance education materials could be developed and used in a wider spectrum of learning areas. Some discussion was had on the way that such materials could be used in harmony with other modules for self-learning pursuits. It was suggested that representatives of those who develop such materials could attend regional meetings that are designed to evaluate and modify, as appropriate, available materials. These meetings could allow for input from different countries as to the particular needs of that country.

Another suggestion for technical and vocational teacher education programmes was that role models of good teachers in specific behavioural areas of teaching could be identified, video-taped and become available to support pedagogical theory.

Consultancy by technical and vocational education teachers was debated as a means of supplementing the teacher's income, and of keeping the teachers up-to-date and valued by industry. This was generally seen as beneficial. However, a warning was given that consultancy can be exploited if the teacher involved in the consulting is not genuinely rewarded for the consulting. Another important issue with respect to consulting that emerged was the difficulty of selecting the appropriate teachers to undertake the consulting without making others feel that they were neglected or discriminated against. Yet, the fact is that some teachers are just not suitable to undertake consulting, for a variety of reasons.

2.7 Financing Technical and Vocational Education

While it is undeniable that governments have a primary responsibility for financing education for the world of work, it has been shown that such support from the private sector can also enhance significantly the availability and quality of such education. As in many other areas of social responsibility, governments need to support those areas of education that may well be neglected by the society as a whole. These include appropriate education for the disadvantaged and those with minimal clout in the political arena. Governments also have the primary responsibility financing long-term planning. Much of education falls in this sphere.

Various suggestions for financing technical and vocational education were given by Prof. Kerre in his paper. From discussion on this issue it was generally agreed that funds for technical and vocational education activities are scarce and, thus, it is important to identify particular sources of fund for particular projects. This had been done successfully by some institutions. An example was given where a greater depth of treatment of an issue, with appropriate authorship, such as entrepreneurship, persuaded project financial support for the purchase of modules and for their adoption and adaptation. However, the real issue is, who should pay for technical and vocational education?

Unfortunately, in the present social context there is a scramble for resources. This makes it difficult for education to receive an appropriate share; let alone technical and vocational education. Rising costs are tending to marginalise technical and vocational education. However, financing, of course, was seen as a very important issue. In terms of financing, it was contended that some industries, especially small business enterprises, prefer to poach people for their employment because they are not willing to finance appropriate training to employees. However, it must also be recognised that industries will only invest in education if they feel that there is something of significance in it for them.

With respect to obtaining the maximum benefit from certain sources of finance, it was suggested that UNESCO, and other donor agencies, could focus the funding and make this more efficient and effective by stipulating the conditions that must prevail. This will tend to ensure that the real objectives of technical and vocational education are attained. However, this may have only a short term effect. It was considered preferable, therefore, for agencies to finance only short sections of a total project and reserve their willingness to finance further sections of the project until it is established that the conditions of the agreement are actually being fulfilled.

It was considered vital that the following conditions of any agreement with a donor agency are fulfilled: (a) a thorough statement of the project is specified in sufficient detail, with appropriate conditions, to ensure that the intended outcomes are clearly specified and are attainable, (b) there is an on-going monitoring of the project: that is, there is a back-stopping, (c) the project, and the monitoring of it, should be seen to be sustainable. Further, support should be given in small amounts that allow for more extensive and on-going supervision of the project.

3. FUTURE ACTIVITIES

3.1 A Proposal for an International Comparative Study on the Recruitment and Training of Technical and Vocational Education Teachers

3.1.1 Rationale

The discussion papers of the International Round Table reveal that all over the world it is now widely accepted that effective, innovative, and relevant technical and vocational teacher education programmes and economic growth are closely linked. Liberalisation of the economy in many countries and consequential moves towards globalisation of the industrial work-force has lead to the inevitable question of comparison of the quality and technical competencies of technical and vocational workers in the different countries. Much of the competitive success of technical and vocational education is dependent upon the quality and competencies of technical and vocational education teachers/trainers.

Up to now, systematic international comparative studies on education achievement have been limited to science, mathematics and other non-technology subjects. The time has come to undertake such studies in the area of technical and vocational education.

Among the emerging economies in Asia-Pacific, the most successful countries like Japan, Singapore, Korea, Philippines are also the countries those who have paid particular attention to the development and renovations of TVET. Most successful are those that have educated and trained their middle-level manpower up to, and in many cases, well beyond, the TVET Standards in the developed countries like Germany, USA or UK.

TVET teachers, teacher-trainers, and policy-markers must seek out the best and most-relevant teaching/learning methods, techniques and practices in TVET for their effective adoption, adaptation and appropriate integration in the TVET class-rooms.

CPSC surveys in Asia-Pacific Countries revealed that there are great variation in standards of recruitment and teaching/learning practices and performances of the TVET teachers in the region. That must be true of other regions as well, but comparative data is not available. Yet performance of the TVET teachers is the most important single factor for the success of the TVET students.

The biggest piece of international comparative study on the students achievement in Mathematics and Science, involving 41 countries around the world, has shown that East-Asian Tiger economies like Singapore, South-Korea, Japan are at the top of the list of countries in the survey. What are the secrets of these successes? And how can others emulate those successful teaching/learning experiences to make the students internationally competitive? A similar study for TVET would interest worldwide audience in education.

3.1.2 Need for an International Comparative Study of TVET Teachers

An International Comparative Study on Recruitment and Teacher-Training practices of TVET is urgently needed if the quality of teaching/learning in TVET is to be improved significantly. Success experiences must be carefully evaluated for their wider applications. This, will be a key factor in effectively globalising the technical workforce in the next century and giving the required competitive edge to the TVET students.

3.1.3 Consideration by the Round-Table Members

The round table on TVET Teacher Education in Brazil considered and unanimously endorsed the idea of carrying out an international comparative study as proposed by Dr. C.K. Basu - Director CPSC, Manila.

UNESCO/UNEVOC in co-operation with other partners like CPSC, COL, CEFET, Moi University Kenya and others, may take the lead role in this matter for presenting the report in the UNEVOC world conference in 1999.

4. LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

BRAZIL	Dr. Sonia Ana LESZCZYNSKI
	Federal Centre of Technological Education at Paran?
	Av. 7 de Setembro, 3156
	CEP 80 230-901
	Curitiba, Paran?
	BRAZIL
JAMAICA	Dr. Lurlienne MILLER
	National Training Agency
	4 Park Boulevard
	Kingston 5
	JAMAICA
KENYA	Dr. B. Wanjala KERRE
	Professor
	Technology Education Department
	Moi University
	P.O. Box 3900
	Eldoret
	KENYA
PAKISTAN	Dr. Muhhamad Hadi GYAVRI
	Director
	National Technical Teachers' Training College
	154, Street N° 14, G-8/1
	Islamabad
	PAKISTAN
POLAND	Ms. Stefania SZCZURKOWSKA
	Department of Vocational Education and Training
	Institute for Education Research
	Gorczewska 8
	01-180 Warsaw
	POLAND
CPSC	Dr. C.K. BASU
	Director
	Colombo Plan Staff College for Technician Education
	P.O. Box 7500, 1300 Domestic Airport Post Office NAIA, Pasay City, Metro Manila PHILIPPINES
COL	Ms. Mavis BIRD
	Education Specialist (TVET) The Commonwealth of Learning (COL) Suite 1700-777 Dunsmuir Street
	Box 10428, Pacific Centre Vancouver, British Columbia CANADA V7Y IK4
UNESCO	Dr. Qian TANG Chief
	Section for Technical and
	Vocational Education
	Division for the Renovation
	of Secondary and Vocational Education 7, place Fontenoy UNESCO, Paris FRANCE
	Dr. Barry HOBART Consultant
	UNESCO/UNEVOC Implementation Unit in Berlin
	Fehrbelliner Platz 3
	D-10707 Berlin
	GERMANY

Training of Teachers/Trainers in Technical and Vocational Education

Position Paper

by R. Barry Hobart
(UNESCO Consultant and Resource Person for the Round Table)

This International Round Table is designed to address the issues related to technical and vocational teacher education from three dimensions. These are:

· The new technological, economic, political, social and educational developments that have taken place in the past ten years and their impact on technical and vocational education;

· The implication of these developments for technical and vocational education, both formal and non-formal;

· The ramifications of these two dimensions for programmes of technical and vocational teacher education.

The first two of these dimensions record the various changes that have occurred under three headings. These are:

· Socio-economic issues;
· World of work issues;
· Educational issues.

Reflection upon these issues confronts one with the extensive changes that have occurred in the contexts of technical and vocational education and the challenges these present to the establishing and maintaining of effective technical and vocational teacher education programmes. Not only are the changes extensive, but also those changes permeate every element of the learning programmes, both formal and non -formal, that are designed to prepare people for, and maintain their efficiency in, the world of work. This, of course, is the mandate of technical and vocational education itself.

The social and political changes have significant implications for technical and vocational education. For example, me social context of technical and vocational education is increasingly that of persons foreign to the immediate culture and language. Such a development has considerable ramifications for the teaching/learning processes to be applied and the concomitant expertise of the teachers. This inevitably must flow on to the nature and content of teacher education programmes. Again, the political developments around the world are probably more far-reaching than have occurred at any other similar time in history. Such changes not only have significant implications for the provision of access to technical and vocational education, but also for the content of curricula of technical and vocational education programmes.

With respect to changes in the world of work, not only has technology impacted extensively upon the knowledge and skills needed for employment, but, even more significantly, the precarious nature of employment, and the extent of unemployment with no available work; these have profound effects on the type of technical and vocational education programmes that need to be offered, and the teaching/learning strategies that need to be employed. Increasingly, the implications of changes in the world of work for technical and vocational education point in the direction of life-long learning and continuing and recurrent technical and vocational education. Such a direction requires the continuing professional development of teachers and trainers, and even of shop-floor supervisors whose responsibilities include the support of the on-going change and development of the competencies required by employees. These personnel responsible for the development of competencies in people to perform effectively within the world of work, need to be familiar with that world of work and its changes. This familiarization is one of the goals of this International Round Table.

Educational issues have also come to the fore. New training technologies have emerged. For example, distance education is being seen around the world as a valuable means of extending the availability of technical and vocational education. Again, the increasing power and flexibility of computers hold out considerable hope for individualizing learning and for extending the reach of available expertise. The need for the constant revision of technical and vocational education curricula, for more efficient ways of profiling occupational skills, for providing bridging and remedial courses for career development, and many other such needs, constitute challenges to the educational processes that are employed by technical and vocational education, and, thus, to the preparation of teachers to meet those challenges.

Changes in the World of Work and their Implications for Technical and Vocational Education.

Socio-economic Issues Social issues

· Increase in private enterprise and market economies;

· Migration;

· Dislocation of people - refugees;

· Globalisation of work;

· Urbanisation;

· Education must be provided that ensures the appropriate distribution of wealth from economic activity;

· Education for the world of work must:

· provide for the non-work experiences and times of the worker;

· support the effective participation of the worker in the political and social arena;

· enable the worker to support democratic developments and processes within the nation;

· support the on-going self-actualisation and personal fulfillment of the worker;

· support the ethical commitments needed in effective and efficient employment, management, political leadership, union leadership, job placement etc.

Political Issues

· A clear locus of control of adult and continuing technical and vocational education in government administration;

· Co-operation between ministries responsible for the training of people for and in the world of work;

· Legislation needed to support effective education and employment of women and the disadvantaged;

· Government support of the non-formal sector;

· A genuine partnership between technical and vocational education institutions, the government and private enterprise needs to be developed, and maintained.

World of Work Issues

Changes in employment conditions

· People with precarious employment;
· People without jobs and without work;
· Restructuring of the economy - primary to secondary to service;
· Restructuring of an employing institution.

Changes in employment contexts

· Job preparation in rural settings;
· Job transition to urban settings;
· Urban settings and unemployment with no work;
· Employment in small enterprise;
· Work in the non-formal sector;
· Individual and collective self-employment.

Special Groups

· Migrant workers;
· The disadvantaged in the world of work;
· The role of women in the world of work.

Changes in job skills

· Mechanisation of work;
· Computerisation of jobs;
· Globalisation of work;
· Restructuring of work;
· Technological change;
· Globalisation of job skills;
· The new international division of labour.

Educational Issues

General

· Globalisation of technical and vocational education curricula.
· Methodological developments:
· Distance education;
· Computers and learning;
· Competency-based education.
· The need to provide life-long or continuing technical and vocational education;
· The need to increase the status of technical and vocational education;
· The need to tie general education more closely into technical and vocational education.
· The need to ensure that technical and vocational education can lead on to higher education.
· Increasing the transferability of skills.
· Increasing the effectiveness and efficiency of the teaching/learning process.

Technical teacher education

· The need to keep teachers relevant to the contemporary world of work.

· The need to prevent unsuitable persons from becoming vocational teachers and trainers.

· Increasing the status of technical and vocational education teachers.

· Increasing the wages of technical and vocational education teachers.

· Providing for world of work experience for technical and vocational education teachers.

· Improving the selection criteria and procedures for technical and vocational education teachers.

· Ensuring the contemporary relevance of the knowledge and skills of technical and vocational education teachers.

· Establishing a career path for technical and vocational education teachers.

In the light of the above dimensions, important aspects of technical and vocational teacher education and training come to the fore. These include:

· Valid and reliable ways of selecting appropriate personnel for technical and vocational education teaching;

· Inducting new teachers into their employment arena and initiating them to the new profession of teaching;

· The technical knowledge and skills and work experiences needed for technical and vocational education teachers;

· The pedagogical knowledge and skills required by technical and vocational education teachers and trainers, and the means for developing this area of their professional competencies;

· The nature of, and provision for, the career development of technical and vocational education teachers.

Suggested TVE Teacher Education Programme

Selection of teaching personnel

· Determining appropriate selection criteria for specific technical and vocational education teachers;
· Designing, or obtaining, valid and reliable instruments to measure that criteria;
· Measuring the relevance and value of employment experience;
· Deciding on essential qualifications;
· Using a broad range of measures for judging the value of an applicant.

Induction

· Assisting the new recruit to become oriented to technical and vocational education;

· Relating the new recruit, as appropriate, to the world of work;

· Ensuring that the new recruit fully understands the employer's requirements and how they are to be implemented;

· Informing the new recruit fully of the conditions of employment;

· Assisting the new recruit to establish appropriate professional relationships with colleagues.

Initiation

· Orienting the new recruit to the fundamental processes of classroom teaching;

· Orienting the new recruit to conducting workshop and laboratory sessions;

· Assisting the new recruit to develop skills in information search: the use of libraries; references, journals, instruction manuals, etc;

· Guiding the new recruit in the processes of developing, preparing and using teaching materials;

· Assisting the new recruit to develop the skills necessary to undertake a teacher education; course, such as completing assignments, developing writing skills, presenting ideas logically and to the point, etc.

The teacher education course

Technical knowledge and skills

· Providing for the upgrading technical knowledge;
· Providing for the upgrading technical skills;
· Developing new technical knowledge;
· Developing new technical skills;
· Broadening the ability to apply existing technical knowledge and skills.

Pedagogical knowledge and skills

Setting objectives

· undertaking, when appropriate, a job analysis;
· developing skills in task analyses;
· setting appropriate cognitive objectives;
· writing and using relevant affective (attitudinal) objectives;
· constructing psycho-motor objectives (skills).

Psychology of learning

· understanding and applying the concepts of motivation;
· understanding and applying the essential principles of reinforcement;
· understanding and applying the factors that lead to improved retention of learning;
· applying the teaching methods that lead to a greater transfer of learning;
· determining the logical structure of content and of the sequence of the lesson;
· understanding and applying the essential principles of effective practice.

Psychology of work

· understanding the principles of achievement motivation;
· encouraging an appreciation of the need for co-operation in the work place;
· appreciating the need for and value of authority;
· encouraging the development of attitudes that support the need to accept responsibility;
· engendering confidence for the taking of initiative.

Sociology

· being able to explain the factors that determine classroom climate;

· being able to analyse the organisational climate of an institution and the factors determining that climate;

· understanding and using group dynamics.

Communication

· improving oral skills;
· developing and refining written skills;
· understanding and applying effectively the factors involved in successful interviewing;
· developing skills in win-win negotiating abilities.

Methodology

· conducting effective demonstration sessions;
· imparting cognitive concepts;
· supervising effective and efficient practice sessions;
· giving appropriate and continual feedback;
· conducting workshops and laboratory sessions;
· setting and supervising relevant projects;
· designing and constructing job sheets;
· supervising student placements in the world of work in cooperation with in-house personnel;
· understanding and applying, where appropriate, competency-based education;
· when appropriate, understanding and applying effective distance education strategies;
· being able to use the computer in the teaching/learning process.

Evaluation

· developing effective instruments and strategies for formative evaluation;

· developing effective instruments for summative evaluation;

· developing the knowledge and skills necessary for constructing evaluation instruments including:

· objective tests;
· written assignments; practical assignments;
· oral tests;
· being able to determine the reliability of tests;
· being able to analyse the validity of tests; using both objective and subjective testing appropriately;
· estimating the economy of testing programme;
· grading assignments.

Management

· keeping student records
· managing workshops
· managing laboratories
· managing equipment
· planning
· ordering
· receiving and recording resources
· supervising borrowing
· maintaining the efficiency of equipment
· preserving equipment

Career Development

Professional feedback and evaluation

· using student evaluation
· organising for peer evaluation
· relating effectively and appreciatively to supervisor evaluation
· designing an on-going programme of self-evaluation

A commitment to life-long learning

· undertaking night studies
· undertaking distance education studies
· engaging in the world of work
· undertaking sabbaticals

The above aspects of technical teacher education and trainer-training need to be analysed in the light of the many different country and cultural contexts in which they occur. This analysis will include implications for general education in terms of the prior preparation of persons for the profession of teaching; implications for the nature and extent of the co-operation needed by the employing world in providing for the initial and on-going occupational experience needed by technical and vocational education teachers; and the implications for government support and intervention in achieving the goal of an effective and efficient technical and vocational education system supported by well trained teachers and trainers. The analysis needs also be undertaken in reference to various case studies of effective technical and vocational teacher education programmes, and of the concepts, ideas and recommendations that have been made in the past two to three years by expert bodies in the arena of technical and vocational teacher education

Challenges of Current Social, Economical and Technological Developments and Need for Reforms/Renovations in Training of Teachers in Technical and Vocational Education

by
C. K. Basu
Colombo Plan Staff College for Technician Education
Manila, Philippines

INTRODUCTION

This document is prepared as a discussion paper in the UNEVOC/UNESCO International Round Table on Training of Teachers/Trainers in Technical and Vocational Education (RTTTVE). The document draws on many published reports and articles and also reflects the views and opinions expressed by many experts and participants of the regional training programmes organized by the Colombo Plan Staff College for Technician Education (CPSC), a regional inter-governmental organization of nineteen member countries in the Asia-Pacific region, established to improve the quality and relevance of technical and vocational education and training (TVET) in the CPSC member countries. However, the views expressed in this document are the views and experiences of the author only who has worked in CPSC and in TVET field in the Asia-Pacific region for the last twenty-three years.

The document has been organized in three parts. Part I draws attention to the challenges posed by the current social, economical and technological developments in the Asia-Pacific region in the context of global changes and challenges. Part II overviews how the countries in the region are responding to various challenges and demands, and finally, Part III looks ahead with possible international cooperation to deal with issues related to training of TVET teachers/trainers in Asia-Pacific countries.

In the field of teacher-training and training-of-trainers in TVET for the Asia-Pacific countries, CPSC has contributed significantly over the last twenty-three years. CPSC's regional research and training activities enabled us to identify the issues, problems and strategies which are critical for effective teacher-training in TVET. This paper is devoted to exploring the experiences related to emerging directions in training of TVET teachers and pinpointing some of the elements of success with a focus on Asia-Pacific countries. The document, however, does not claim to be comprehensive. It aims to provide a starting point for the expected discussion in the Round Table.

CHALLENGES OF CURRENT SOCIAL, ECONOMICAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC COUNTRIES

In spite of great geographical, economic and demographic diversities among Asia-Pacific countries, they share many common challenges and pose many common issues which are fundamental to improve the quality and relevance of TVET to gain a competitive edge in the market economy of the 21st century. The Asian Development Outlook 1996/97, prepared by ADB, points out that the developing Asia, during the past decade recorded remarkable buoyant economic performance achieving an overall growth rate of 7.9 percent in 1995. There were, nevertheless, large variations and disparities in economic growth among the countries. Poverty remained one of the critical issues in many of the countries in the region. What strategic policy measure is necessary for converging the growth rate amongst the countries and eradicate poverty in the region? The Human Resource Development (HRD) theory, developed over the past decade, provides a useful direction for addressing this question. It recognizes the role of teachers/trainers and innovations in education and training for raising productivity as the ultimate engine of socio-economic growth. In order to develop a coherent strategy of training of TVET teachers, the following are some of the critical issues in the region which need to be examined in depth and their impact on recruitment and training of TVET teachers/trainers have to be assessed:

· population growth and rapid urbanization;
· poverty and lack of skills for income-generation;
· increasing demand for secondary education, technical education and female education;
· technological change and labour market shift;
· changing patterns of international trade, liberalization and globalization of the workforce;
· pollution and environmental degradation;
· new technologies of training for TVET education.

Population Growth and Urbanization

By the end of the century, the world population will number around six billion. Most of them will be in Asia-Pacific. Thirteen "Mega Cities" with more than ten million population each will grow in Asia in the next twenty-five to thirty years. The high rate of population growth added with rapid urbanization in many countries, and general improvement of communication techniques and higher level of aspirations would require in Asia new strategies of education and training for skill-development and income-generation. Technology education at all levels of education will play critical roles in this changing process.

Poverty and Lack of Skills for Income-generation in Rural Areas

Poverty remains a critical problem and continue to pose a great challenge at dawn of the 21st century. Approximately 800 million people in Asia and the Pacific live below the poverty line. The great majority of the poor live in rural areas. Many poor do not have enough skills to find productive employment. Rural poverty continues to pose one of the greatest development challenges in many Asian developing countries, particularly in countries with low per capita income. Eradication of poverty in many developing countries through various development projects cannot be optimum without carefully coordinated remedial strategies, policies and programmes.

There is often a persistent bias against investment in skill-development for women who have less opportunities for education and training than do their male counterparts. Women must be brought into the mainstream of economic policy and develop skills for income-generation and self-reliance. Currently, following the Grameen Bank Model of Bangladesh, micro-credit and enterprise development is gaining grounds as a poverty-alleviation strategy, particularly for rural women.

Increasing Demand for Secondary Education, Technical Education, and Female Education

Developing economies in Asia, particularly in East Asia, are continuing to prosper leading to changing life style, education aspirations, living standards and use of modern technologies. As poverty remains one of the critical problems in some of the countries in the region, particularly in South Asia, human resource development and skill- development for improving income-generating capacities will be a key factor in the quest for improving the quality of life in the Asia-Pacific.

Technical-vocational education and training are areas of major interest in Asian countries, especially in those reflecting a singular economic growth like those in South-East Asia and China. Most countries in the region regard TVET as being pivotal to their development as it is intimately linked to job creation, employment provision, income-generation and life skills-training.

The growth in the enrolment in technical/vocational education, as a percentage of secondary education, is a salient feature in the countries of the region. The increase in the number of students is most apparent in countries whose economies are in transition or rapid growth, such as in South-East Asia and China (see chart).

Similarly, the percentage of female students enrolled in TVET has witnessed significant increase in some Asian countries. This trend is likely to continue in other countries of the region, if it is not visible yet. (See charts in the next two pages, 3-a, 3-b).

Technological Change and Labor Market Shift

Many Asian countries are fast adopting the new and emerging technologies in industry and agriculture. The new technologies, in general, need higher knowledge-base and would require knowledge-intensive application. The role of manual skills are going down. This has profound effect on employment, education and training of technical manpower, and training of teachers of TVET. One analysis (World Bank, Knight and Wasty, 1991) recognizes six main elements of technological transformation:

· the increased rate of technological innovation (especially in micro-electronics, bio-technology, and new materials);

· the cross-cutting nature of technological change (the application effect);

· shortened technology life cycles and flexibility in meeting needs;

· increased automation with a smaller role for unskilled labor;

· increased energy and material savings;

· substitution of traditional materials with new ones.

Technological development is transforming the opportunities for, and also methodologies of HRD. This raises the challenge to develop institutional and non-institutional capacities to develop and adopt strategies for continuing training and upgrading of teachers and teacher trainers in TVET. A new 'technical leadership' will be required of the TVET teachers to suit the needs of the 21st century technology. Continuing education and training of teachers will be the best investment to meet the demands of the next millennium.

Changing Patterns of International Trade, Liberalization leading to Globalization of the Workforce

International trade and investment have expanded rapidly during the past decade. Trade liberalization and structural reforms have been initiated by most of the countries in the Asia-Pacific region. Most notably, the two most populous countries in the region, India and China, are moving towards the market economy. The GATT agreement, the creation of APEC, WTO, and other organizations will further accelerate the process of globalization of trade and commerce leading to creating a global workforce. The Information Technology Agreement (ITA) in the last WTO meeting in Singapore has added a new dimension to IT. The global economic interdependence will certainly intensify further. Asia-Pacific countries with the highest rate of economic growth in the world are particularly well-placed to benefit from this process of liberalization. To remain competitive in the global workforce, high productivity and appropriate skills for that are needed by the Asian workers. Continuing professional education will become imperative with the onset of global trade liberalization.

Pollution and Environmental Degradation

Pollution and environmental degradation has phenomenally increased in Asian countries along with industrial development and population growth. Agenda 21 of the UNCED made it clear that "education is critical for promoting sustainable development". Proposals in Agenda 21 focus on re-orienting education and training at all levels, particularly of the teachers towards sustainable development. This is an urgent global need.

As ESCAP (1993) points out, five aspects of the environmental situation in the Asian and Pacific region require urgent policy intervention:

· Unsustainable human settlements environments, including inadequate or inappropriate shelter, lack of water supply, poor sanitation, poor nutrition, shortage of cooking fuel, excessive use of agro-chemicals, and increasingly concentrated habitation of environmentally fragile and hazard-prone areas;

· Pollution, including pollution of ambient air in cities and of household air in villages; pollution of lakes, rivers, underground reservoirs and marine water; toxic and nuclear waste dumping; and environmental hazards emanating from energy-related activities;

· Degradation and destruction of natural resources, including excessive resource extraction, loss of biological diversity, deforestation, soil erosion, soil fertility loss, waterlogging, salinization and toxification of soils, damage to and destruction of coastal and marine resources, and depletion of fresh water supplies;

· Environmental calamities and natural disasters, such as floods, droughts, cyclones and storm surges, earthquakes, landslides and volcanic eruptions, which periodically affect many countries in the region, causing increasing loss of life and damage to property and infrastructure under conditions of growing population pressure;

· Global environmental problems, particularly the greenhouse effect, ozone depletion and biodiversity loss, which are intensifying the threat to already widespread environmental degradation in the region.

New Technologies of Training for TVET and Teacher-training

New technologies of training (NTT) has been introduced in many countries in the region and can go a long way to facilitate the process of curriculum development and curriculum delivery for the 21st century. Satellite communication, electronic media, computer technology, telecommunication and internet facilities are introducing a fundamental shift in the nature of education and training. In the new context, the teachers would interact very differently with students, more as guiders and mentors and less like instructors or lecturers. These new technologies and their appropriate applications are being progressively introduced in many countries in Asia-Pacific. Countries like Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines, India, Pakistan, etc. are already in the path of applying the NTT in educational institutions. Some of the other developing countries like Bhutan, Nepal, Myanmar, etc. have started building the necessary human and technological resources to deploy NTT in education. However, TVET do not yet make full use of these new technologies of training for upgrading its teachers.

As the Delors Report points out, nothing can entirely replace face-to-face tuition. Yet the media revolution is there and we should use it to our best advantage. New technology has created a host of new tools for use in the classroom, in laboratories, at home and on the move:

· computers of all sizes and sophistication;

· cable and satellite TV education broadcasting;

· multimedia equipment;

· interactive information exchange systems, including electronic mail and on-line access to libraries and public data bases;

· computerized simulators;

· virtual reality systems.

Using these tools, both students and teachers are equipped to become researchers. Teachers then coach their students to evaluate and use effectively the information they have gathered for themselves. This is far closer to real life situations than the older styles of teacher transmission of information to students. A new partnership between trainees and trainers is developing in the TVET classroom as well as the non-formal situations.

EMERGING TRENDS IN TVET TEACHER-TRAINING FOR THE 21ST CENTURY

The demands on TVET teachers' competence, professionalism, attitude, values and work ethics in the context of new and emerging technologies in the region as well as the globalization of the workforce would impose enormous responsibilities on TVET teachers in the 21st century. In many countries, quantitative expansion of TVET has put much pressure on quantity and quality of TVET teachers. Planning and implementation of reforms in TVET teacher training will require effective partnerships among: a) national planners; b) TVET institutions; c) teachers' organizations; d) media experts; and (e) international agencies. The question is how to forge that partnership?

Skills and competencies necessary to meet the challenges of TVET teacher training will not be achieved through the traditional forms of TVET teacher-training curriculum and delivery and its systems. A multi-dimensional approach is necessary to meet the objectives. These will include:

· pre-service and continuing teacher education through formal and open learning systems;

· more broad-based and flexible teacher-training curriculum replacing skill-specific training programmes;

· integration of training and education in cooperation with industries and private sectors;

· life-long and flexible learning to enable the teachers to meet the demands of higher and varied demands of the teaching job;

· knowledge and skills of using new technologies of training and education including the computers;

· development of multi-lingual and communication skills;

· increased emphasis on development of work ethics, teamwork, human values and other non-technical competencies like leadership, time management, environmental awareness, etc.

The question is how do we integrate that multi-dimensional approach in our TVET planning?

The role of technical and vocational education teachers is undergoing a radical change. Teachers are no longer just dispensers of information. They are expected to be curriculum designers, student counsellors, educational and resource managers, internet operators, and vocational practitioners. Some of the countries in the region have opted measures to cope with the emerging situation. These include:

· recruitment of teachers from the world of business and industry;

· providing pre-service and in-service training with greater emphasis on practical skills training;

· establishment of closer links between institutions and industries for skill development of the TVET teachers;

· wider application of competency-based teacher education programmes;

· focus on attitude, values, work ethics and non-technical competencies in TVET teacher-training programmes. The question is how to use success experiences for the benefit of all countries in the region.

Institutionalized Training of TVET Teachers

Twenty years ago most of the CPSC member countries did not have specific institutional facilities for training of TVET teachers and teacher trainers. Since the beginning of its inception, CPSC consistently advocated the need for establishing infrastructure for formal and non-formal pre-service and in-service training of TVET teachers and teacher trainers. Over the last twenty years many such institutions have come up in the region.

In Bangladesh, the Technical Teacher Training Institute (TTTC) is one of the first technical teachers training institutes in the sub-continent. India, in the 70's, established four Technical Teachers Training Institutes (TTT's) in the four regions of th