Introduction - Partnership in practice


Introduction

David Atchoarena

The term 'partnership' has gradually emerged as a new form of governance. In the field of technical and vocational education and training (TVET) it describes co-ordination mechanisms at the system level, as well as cooperation between schools and businesses, at the institution level. Partnership may involve a wide range of actors including social partners, NGOs, community groups, or private providers. Although evaluative work is still incomplete, it is now increasingly accepted that the participation of stakeholders can improve the effectiveness of TVET systems. Such a consensus largely resulted from the changing role of the state. The public sector is no longer considered as capable of providing alone the relevant type of TVET, in adequate quantity. The perceived isolation of TVET systems and institutions from the world of work motivated this movement towards sharing responsibilities with concerned actors, primarily employers.

Furthermore, the wide dissemination of democratic values is also promoting participatory policy making, social dialogue and the involvement of civil society in TVET. That trend reflects an increasing concern for transparency in decision-making, free expression of divergent views and interests and for accountability.

Finally, the concept of partnership has also largely benefited from the paradigm shift towards market principles. Contraction of the public sector, cuts in government spending, deregulation and privatization all imply increasing reliance on new actors.

The combination of those factors and motives contributed to the emergence of the concept of partnership in the literature dedicated to development issues, as well as on the education agenda. Government practices are changing accordingly by adapting the legal and financial framework of TVET and providing a 'partner friendly' environment, including a market-oriented regulatory framework.

This document looks at ways TVET governance has been or is opening up to key stakeholders in three countries, from Africa (Mauritius), Eastern Europe (Hungary) and Asia (India). These case studies illustrate the relevance, the implementation and also the difficulties of partnership in contrasted development contexts. They also correspond to different stages in building up partnership.

In Mauritius, the experience of the Industrial and Vocational Training Board (IVTB) illustrates the potential benefits resulting from an appropriate institutional and legislative framework to involve employers in training provision, financing and certification. Looking at the financing and decision-making mechanisms of the IVTB provides detailed information on the operating model of such a body. This contribution should be of interest in other environments, in a period where the National Training agency concept is viewed by many as a promising option to improve training efficiency and effectiveness. However, when reading this case study, one should bear in mind the specificity of the country, in particular its small size and its specific culture which make it quite distinct from other African contexts.

Establishing a framework for social dialogue on training matters is a significant matter for the countries in transition of Central and Eastern Europe and for the ex-USSR states. The case study on Hungary describes the steps followed to implement partnership mechanisms within a broader movement towards social dialogue. It also analyzes the difficulties encountered. Unlike most Central European countries, Hungary adopted a gradual approach rather than introducing brutal changes. This process seems to have facilitated the emergence of a genuine social dialogue. Interestingly, the initial tripartite approach is evolving towards a more complex formula, where the Economic Chambers and the municipalities also play an important role. Hence, this experience stresses the importance of a regulatory framework articulating dialogue at the national and local levels.

India somehow provides a counter example to the partnership movement. As such it tends to challenge the view about a convergence in the management and financing of TVET systems. The continental size of the country, a long tradition of economic planning served by a strong civil service are among the factors explaining this situation. However, this resistance at the central level does not prevent the development of active partnership initiatives at the institution and local levels. In the long run, the ongoing process of deregulation and liberalization, as well as the need to increase investment in training, may contribute to enhancing the scope for partnership, especially with employers.

The selected experiences do not cover partnership at the local and institution levels. This choice corresponds to an effort to focus the analysis on a homogeneous corpus. It also reflects the view that, although it is not always a prerequisite, establishing partnership at the system level facilitates and supports a deep involvement of stakeholders at the lower levels of operation. While active partnerships are much needed at the territorial and institutional levels, their success relies to a large extent on national frameworks. A separate publication deals with the peculiar but growing issue of partnership between the state and the informal sector¹.

¹ Sarr, S.; Ciss? A.D.; Haidara, S.M. 1999. Le dialogue Etat-secteur informel au Mali. Paris: UNESCO/IIPE.

Expected benefits of partnership in TVET The growing emphasis on partnership in TVET can be related to two main motivations. One is the increasing concern for democratic policy making. Increasingly, involving the civil society, encouraging informed public debate and promoting social dialogue are considered as good governance practices. Such a conceptual framework implies to reshape both policy formulation procedures and the implementing modalities of government interventions. The other motive for developing partnership is to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of the TVET system through: · securing additional resources to finance TVET; · improving the quality of training programmes and contents; · facilitating the transition from school to work; and · promoting continuing access of workers to education. Improving TVET financing, ensuring training relevance, combating youth unemployment, enhancing competitiveness and capability to face technological change and innovation and promoting lifelong learning, can all be considered as specific objectives of partnership.

The concept and types of partnership in TVET have already been documented at the international level². However, there is still a need to better understand how to do it. Research has shown that national context, including tradition and culture, is essential in determining what kind of partnership is possible. High on the list of facilitating factors is the dedication and competence of concerned individuals. However, heritage and luck are not always necessary for successful partnership. It also depends on appropriate policies, mechanisms and instruments, regardless of country specificity. Lessons drawn from case studies in one country can therefore be useful for other countries.

²

- Atchoarena, D. 1998. Le partenariat dans l'enseignement technique et la formation professionnelle, le concept et son application. Paris: UNESCO/IIPE.

- European Training Foundation. 1998. Enhancing the role of social partner organizations in the area of vocational education and training in the candidate countries of Central and Eastern Europe. Luxembourg: European Communities.

- Mitchell, A.G. 1998. Strategic partnerships between the state and enterprises, Employment and training papers No. 19. Geneva: ILO.

- UNEVOC. 1996. Establishing partnership in technical and vocational education. Berlin: UNESCO/UNEVOC.

In this spirit, it is not intended here to fully address the complexity of practical partnership, but rather to provide additional material on two key concerns: how partnership can be initiated and what are the main obstacles to its development.

1. How to make it work

National governments bear the prime responsibility for creating the framework leading to partnership in TVET. What are the lessons for them?

1.1 Providing the adequate legal framework

In order to create the appropriate environment for partnership to happen, it is government's task to formulate laws enabling the stakeholders to take responsibility and participate, not only to defend their own views, but in the best interest of all parties. Strategic issues for which clear legislation is required include access, provision, financing, certification and social dialogue (Hungary). Such legal framework is usually defined in education laws - or sometimes in more specific vocational education laws (Hungary) - apprenticeship laws, labour laws, and laws regulating the financing of TVET (Mauritius, Hungary).

International legislation also has an influence on national legal frameworks regarding partnership. In particular, the objectives and modalities of tripartite dialogue have been laid down in a series of ILO instruments, particularly in the areas of continuing education and vocational training provided as part of active labour market policies. For instance, according to ILO Convention No. 122 "representatives of the persons affected by the measures to be taken, and in particular representatives of workers and employers, shall be consulted concerning employment policies, with a view of taking fully into account their experience and views and securing their full co-operation in formulating and enlisting support for such policies". The legal framework developed in Hungary to foster and regulate partnership in TVET is to a large extent inspired by ILO instruments.

Although appropriate laws are a prerequisite for effective partnership, over-regulation bears the risk of discouraging the concerned parties to play their role. Making things simple for the partners, especially employers, does not only provide an incentive to active partnership, it can also develop a sense of ownership and build up trust. In that respect efforts made to cut through the red tape and simplify complex and time-consuming legal procedures make very good sense (Mauritius). This is particularly true for two areas where over-regulation does particular damage. One is the complexity of apprenticeship law, where employers find it difficult to accept costs and risks involved in taking apprentices. The other is often the rules concerning the financing of vocational training, particularly regarding the time taken in obtaining approval for starting up training or for reimbursement of training cost.

1.2 Reforming the institutional framework

¨ Creating new specialized bodies

In an increasing number of countries partnership is institutionalized at the highest level through the establishment of a specific body for co-ordinating TVET and financing it. National training agencies and training Funds have been conceived in this context. In most cases they are established outside ministry structures. Creating an institution directly responsible to the Prime Minister (Mauritius) provides more operational speed and flexibility for decision-making and implementation. However, placing such agencies under the umbrella of the ministry or ministries responsible for the related sector(s) can facilitate co-ordination with broader education and training policies. The involvement of the Ministry of Labour, which is the natural government counterpart of the social partners, can be a strong asset. Furthermore, the articulation of TVET policy and employment policy is usually a sign of good governance.

The advisability of creating a new specialized body involving non-governmental partners, instead of reforming and consolidating existing ones, remains a critical issue. A separate organization would need to be considered in a situation where existing institutions do not function any more. It also requires stakeholders to be interested, supportive and willing to participate.

International experience suggests that effective training agencies or Funds often enjoy an autonomous status. However, while effectiveness requires them to be independent, their credibility and efficiency also call for transparency and accountability. In that respect operational manuals must define clear procedures and criteria. Provision must also be made for control by stakeholders, including through auditing procedures (Mauritius). Keeping informed the civil society at large, using the press, can also help generate confidence about the commitment and integrity of the partners running the institution.

A key issue concerning the design and functioning of training agencies and Funds is how responsibilities should be divided among the different parties concerned. The number of partners involved and the balance of power within the governing bodies of training agencies or Fund are obviously country-specific. The objectives of partnership, the political context and the respective institutional capacity of the actors concerned are among the main criteria influencing those decisions. While the ILO favours the tripartite formula, some countries, like Mauritius, prefer to adopt, at the macro-policy level, a bipartite model. However, the Mauritius experience shows that such option does not prevent consultation of trade unions and even their participation at the operational level within appropriate structures, the so-called Training Advisory Committees in Mauritius.

¨ Establishing training councils or committees

Besides national training agencies or Funds, where decision-making at the policy and operational levels are shared among two or more concerned parties, a lighter and quite frequent form of partnership is provided by training councils or committees. Most of those bodies are only consultative. Hungary and India offer contrasted examples of the possible use of such structures to involve stakeholders. While training councils are often used to seek the advice of concerned actors in policy issues, committees can offer a useful and easy way to benefit from outside expertise to improve the provision of TVET at the system and institution levels. International experience shows that such committees, by bringing all relevant parties together, can facilitate co-operation and foster links between the state and the other stakeholders, especially employers. Some of their areas of competence include identifying skill and training needs, updating training content, diagnosing TVET system inefficiencies and networking with public TVET institutions. In federal states (India) or countries adopting a decentralized framework (Hungary), training councils and/or committees are present both at the central and local levels. In addition to allowing a closer link with local labour markets, such institutional arrangements seek to preserve and promote the capacity of dialogue and initiative of basic actors.

1.3 Promoting social dialogue

The most comprehensive TVET policy paper will remain largely ineffective unless it is supported by a process of dialogue and negotiation, including at the local level. In many countries training issues are a matter of extensive consultation and negotiation at the national, sector and firm levels. Workers and employers often contribute to the design and implementation of training policies, especially for continuing education, apprenticeship schemes and programmes related to broader employment policies.

Promoting social dialogue mainly relies on two types of instruments. One is collective bargaining, where employers and trade unions agree on policy issues. The other is tripartite dialogue, under which social partners are systematically consulted and actively involved in policy making, in setting standards and in monitoring the provision and outcomes of training. As already mentioned, the goals and modalities of tripartite co-operation at the national level have been framed in a series of ILO instruments.

In Western Europe and, to a lesser extent, in Latin America, training issues have been subject to tripartite consultation. In many countries the establishment of democratic regimes has legitimated the role of the trade union as a social actor. This is notably the case in Eastern and Central Europe, where the transition process has contributed to the emergence of a genuine labour movement. However, labour market deregulation and economic austerity have hampered social dialogue. Nowadays, most of those countries, including Hungary, have established tripartite bodies for consultation and negotiation. The Hungarian experience illustrates a particular form of partnership involving, in addition to the social partners, the economic Chambers - a new actor in the picture - and training providers.

Who are the partners? A growing body of evidence suggests that TVET policies are likely to be more effective if the stakeholders are involved and become real partners. Stakeholders are groups or institutions who can influence TVET and/or who are affected by policy decisions and actions. The state, of course, is a major stakeholder. Given the growth of the employment concern in most countries, employers are also a key stakeholder. Other important partners are workers' representatives who play a strategic role within the framework of social dialogue. NGOs constitute a legitimate partner in TVET policies, particularly regarding strategies and programmes aimed at disadvantaged groups. Parents, private providers and community organizations are also potential partners. The range of potential stakeholders varies according to the political context, the pursued objectives and the capacity of the actors concerned. Effective partners must have strong capacities and be organized, representative and autonomous. Stakeholders' involvement always remains subject to cultural and political factors. For instance, small businesses and micro entrepreneurs are often overlooked. Governments are sometimes reluctant to share their responsibilities, being held accountable, Rather than involving all concerned actors, a pragmatic approach capitalizes on those who already support TVET and/or have the capacity to contribute. Involving too quickly a great number of partners may lead to complex management problems.

Effective social dialogue requires that trade unions, employers' organizations and NGOs have a strong institutional capacity. They must also be in close contact with all parts of their membership and have developed their own expertise in analyzing TVET and labour market issues. However, in cases where no tradition of genuine social dialogue exists, a situation common to countries in transition, partnership structures can be designed as a learning environment where stakeholders will gradually forge an identity, develop awareness and competence for training issues, and establish their credibility. In Hungary the establishment of economic Chambers, where membership is compulsory, can be seen as a strategy to find an alternative to the slow emergence of sound social partners. That case study documents a partnership mechanism involving several levels of dialogue. Although complex to manage, such a network can be seen as a response to the weakness of the partners, at the central level.

1.4 Providing financial incentives

Developing a comprehensive framework of incentives designed to enhance the motivation and participation of all concerned parties is a key factor for nursing successful partnership. Considering that people and institutions are not always interested in getting involved, partnership can only be achieved by finding strategies to draw stakeholders into systematic and reciprocal interaction. Creating a financial stake is usually a pragmatic and effective way to make such interaction happen. International experience showed that establishing a training Fund, financed by an earmarked levy, can constitute a powerful measure to foster partnership (Mauritius, Hungary). Once invited to sit and negotiate around the same table to decide upon the allocation of resources, the partners tend to gradually expand the scope of their concern to embrace other policy issues such as training quality, certification, training modes or training needs and priorities. This is particularly true for employers who are key partners for promoting continuing education and apprenticeship, but also for giving students exposure to the workplace and helping them develop practical skills. Employers are also increasingly called upon to contribute to the implementation of youth employment programmes.

If fund-raising formulae are likely to facilitate the building up of an institutionalized partnership, tax rebate or reimbursement schemes are better suited to influence training practices at the workplace. The Mauritius example shows that the two options can successfully be combined to both build up an employer-driven training system, and to promote skill development at the enterprise level.

User choice instruments, such as vouchers, can also promote active participation of stakeholders in the training system and help in forging a TVET system truly responsive to the needs of industry, particularly small businesses (Mauritius), or even informal-sector operators. According to user choice principles the funding for off-the-job training is directly allocated to the training institutions selected by the employer or the trainee. Such facilities can promote more direct partnership between training institutions and employers. They also stimulate competition between public and private providers (Mauritius).

In a context of financial constraints the need for additional sources of funding is sometimes the main motive to consider when establishing partnership patterns (India). Initially perceived as forced changes, such alliances, limited to cost-sharing arrangements, are likely to eventually evolve towards more genuine partnership reflecting a deep transformation in the governance regime of the TVET system.

1.5 Establishing a market for TVET

Moving from a government-regulated framework to a market-oriented system creates new opportunities for partnership arrangements and provides additional incentives. The competition resulting from an opening of the training market to private-sector institutions has wide implications. Beyond the diversification of offerings, such an option can lead training providers to better respond to private-sector needs. Public institutions may benefit from this policy through closer interaction with industry.

Information is a crucial ingredient to allow a market to operate. Users need it to be able to choose among the full range of providers: public TVET institutions, private profit-making operators, industry-related organizations and NGOs. Few developing countries, or countries in transition, have a robust and comprehensive labour market information system. Institutional capacity building in areas related to data gathering, processing and analysis is therefore much needed to guide informed debate. Whatever information is treated by government agencies must be readily available for other partners. In addition to developing partners' expertise, common knowledge and joint analysis support the process of dialogue and foster trust and credibility.

In addition to appropriate legal and financial incentives, the success of market-oriented initiatives relies on national qualification frameworks ensuring quality of outcomes and recognition of competencies (Mauritius). Registration of training institutions can facilitate quality monitoring and the entry of a greater number of providers in the training market. It seems equally important to ensure industry participation in the establishment and operation of the national qualification framework. Involving employers in its design and functioning is necessary to ensure that training and certification are shaped around required skills. Furthermore, portability of qualifications appears as a key criterion for the mobility of the workers and the fluidity of the labour market. Eventually, the credibility of the certification system will form a strong incentive for investing in training, both for individuals and enterprises.

2. Knowing the most common obstacles and risks

2.1 Lack of political commitment

Partnership can only grow and work if it is wanted and supported by central government. A positive attitude of the state vis-a-vis the private sector and NGOs is a key element. The case study on India provides an interesting example of political resistance to partnership. It shows that the political system still conceives the federal state as the main instrument for social progress. Such a situation underlines the peculiarity of national conditions, in spite of global trends and international influence.

2.2 Weak and divided partners

Commitment is not enough, successful partnership requires stakeholders to be well organized, competent, representative and independent. Such requirements explain why establishing a sound partnership can only be a long process. This issue is well illustrated when comparing the experience of Mauritius, where social dialogue is more of a routine, and the problems faced by Hungary, forced to find imaginative solutions to counterbalance the weakness of the newly emerged social partners.

The term 'social partners' is often misleading. In reality stakeholders do not form homogeneous categories. For instance, there are different types of employers and unions. Multinational firms, large public companies and small and medium enterprises do not always share the same interests and views. Similarly, unions are often split along political lines with conflicting opinions. The same could be said of NGOs.

2.3 Administrative and cultural resistance

In contexts where there exists a long-standing mutual suspicion between the actors, partnership can hardly grow. Breaking the ice entails energetic and sustained efforts. India provides an interesting example of such a situation. Heiress of a tradition of state domination, Indian bureaucrats are reluctant to give up their control over the TVET system. An additional handicap relates to the attitude of educators. Although diminishing, their legendary distrust for employers remains an obstacle to school/business partnership. They believe that too much employer control may harm long-term educational goals or lead to unequal distribution of training opportunities. Bureaucrats' and educators' behaviour is reinforced by cultural factors and values which do not favour private involvement in the education sphere. In public opinion, profit making and education tend to be seen as antinomic; obviously, such a view does not support co-operation with private providers and market-oriented policies.

2.4 Partnership can be troublesome

Partnership is hard to manage and can create new problems. Coordinating policies among different partners and at the various territorial levels proves to be a complex and lengthy exercise. The Hungarian approach, involving a great number of institutions and articulating the central and regional levels provides an interesting example of such difficulties. While tripartite mechanisms have allowed stakeholders to be involved in shaping TVET policies, they have also created some confusion. The absence of a clear legal definition of the responsibilities of each multipartite body lessens the effectiveness of the partnership framework. There is also little co-ordination between national and regional representatives of employers and trade unions. It could be added that the objectives of partnership policies and mechanisms need to be non-ambiguous.

2.5 Partnership is fragile

Even in countries where partnership institution and mechanisms are long established, their sustainability remains subject to changing socio-economic and political conditions. Furthermore, for some of the actors who have been deeply involved in partnership initiatives, "the success of partnership very often depends on the quality of the people rather than on the mechanism itself"³.

³ Munbodh, S., see Mauritius case study.

In spite of such limitations the three following case studies on Mauritius, Hungary and, to a lesser extent, India show that partnership plays an important role in reshaping the governance and functioning of TVET systems. However, it is also true that some of the conditions required for effective partnership are often missing in developing countries and in countries in transition. Therefore success cannot be expected immediately.

Although Mauritius may be seen, to some extent, as a success story, it benefited from a very peculiar situation, partly related to its small size, which provides a highly personalized environment. As already stressed, partnership is an area where national contexts are essential in determining the policy options and their impact. Transferability of national formulae is therefore questionable. Nevertheless, taking into account cultures, resources and goals of individual societies, much can be learned from different experiences, both in terms of how to do it and what to avoid.

Chapter I. Institutionalized partnership: the Mauritius Industrial and Vocational Training Board*

Suresh Munbodh
* This paper deals with the IVTB from its inception, in the late 1980's, up until 1996.

Introduction

Training is expensive. The style of leadership used and its management have a great effect on its cost, its financing and its quality.

The Industrial and Vocational Training Board (IVTB) was started as a partnership between the public and the private sector to plan, organize, implement, evaluate, monitor and promote training.

The partnership worked within a democratic political system and was established at the highest level, with the managing council made up of seven members from the private sector and seven from the public sector.

The IVTB has promoted institution-based training, industry-based training, on-the-job training, off-the-job training, apprenticeship training and open learning. It has maintained linkages with the different partners in training and has operated a levy-grant system to promote training. It has established a system for the approval of training programmes, the registration of trainers and training institutions and a National Trade Certification System.

It is regularly subjected to a management audit to keep it on track and maintains a flexible structure to adapt quickly to changing situations.

1. Socio-economic background

1.1 General background

Mauritius, an island in the Indian Ocean, is a pluri-cultural country with inhabitants whose forefathers came in as settlers from Europe, Africa and Asia. The official language is English, but French is widely spoken, Creole is the lingua-franca, and in the home people speak Bhojpuri, Hindi, Urdu, Tamil, Telegu, Mandarin, etc. The teaching of the different languages and the level at which they should be introduced in the school curriculum has always been controversial. Children start their primary school studying English, French and an Asian language.

Independent since 1968, the country has a democratic system of government, with the President as head of state and the Prime Minister as head of government

The country has very few natural resources. Its main economic activity was the production of sugar for export mostly to the European Union until the late seventies. Its situation in the cyclone belt renders such an economy very vulnerable. In the 1970s, government established an Export Processing Zone in an effort to create more employment. It has over the last decade, through a holistic approach to the planning of its development, promoted both manufacturing and tourism.

The development of the country depends increasingly on its export-oriented strategy. The share of the manufacturing, as well as that of the service, sectors are planned to increase further, whilst the share of agriculture is on the decline. Such a trend influences significantly its education training system.

1.2 The education and training system

Responsibility for education is vested in the Ministry of Education and Science. Education is free at the primary level, at the secondary level up to the age of 20 years, and since 1993-94 a fee is charged for part-time courses at the University. The country has a 6-5-2 education system, as represented in Figure 1.

As from 1991, education has been compulsory from the ages of 5 to 12 years. The enrolment ratio between these ages is estimated to be more than 95 per cent. About 35 per cent of a cohort repeat the 6th grade. Those who pass the Certificate of Primary Education (CPE) examination join the five-year secondary stream, at the end of which they take Cambridge School Certificate (CSC) examinations. Those who pass the CSC examinations with a minimum of five credits join the two-year Higher School Certificate (HSC) course. Those who fail the CPE after a second attempt may join the three-year Basic Secondary School (BSS) course.

Since time immemorial, training was meant for school drop-outs and school-leavers, and for those who did not have access to schooling. Thus, it was left, most of the time, in the hands of the private sector, with very little involvement from the public sector. At the beginning of the century, a small effort was made to give a vocational orientation to education at the primary level. The vocational classes were again meant for children from the labouring class and school drop-outs. In spite of the public sector assuming a greater role in 'training' the scheme failed, as parents preferred to keep their children at home rather than to send them to school to learn vocational trades. Trades were associated with a very low status and were meant for the poor and labouring class.

The IVTB was established in 1988 to improve the co-ordination and provision of training. Its delivery combines various sources of training. They can be broadly classified as the following, operating either individually or in combination:

(i) On-the-job training

Generally, on-the-job training for middle- and top-level technical and administrative staff is catered for by industry through either local or overseas training. Workshops/seminars involving leading local resource persons or consultants from abroad are quite common to satisfy an identified training need. Some training firms/institutions provide in-house training to workers at the request of the employers.

(ii) Apprenticeship training

In apprenticeship training, which has been implemented since mid-1994, the training is offered on a dual mode with the practical training being covered in the company where the apprentice is employed (70 per cent of contact time). The theoretical component is covered in training institutions. This scheme is greatly dependent on the learning material, the tutors in industry and the regular monitoring of the training.

(iii) Institutional training

Since its creation in 1989, IVTB adopted the policy of offering courses to school-leavers on a full-time basis. These courses were heavily subsidized to make them accessible. In this way, by opening new training centres and offering two shifts, a larger population of school-leavers could be trained. This provided industry with a new breed of workers who were younger, more dynamic and eager to learn and climb up the company's hierarchy, as they had an academic background that enabled them to take advantage of further institutional courses. Modular short courses were offered in the evenings to train industry workers. The courses were run on a cost-recovery basis as many of those attending these courses were sponsored by their employers.

(iv) Open learning

The target population has generally been in-service workers taking full advantage of this flexible method that enables them to work full time and use their spare time to further their qualifications. The success of this means of training depends upon the availability and accessibility of good-quality learning materials, as well as the support provided.

2. Rationale for partnership


2.1 Establishing partnership - rationale and genesis

Mauritius, as in many other countries, had a system of government where there was very little consultation among the different active partners. When the country became independent in 1968, steps were taken to improve the relationship. Thus were set up mechanisms to improve the relationship. Amongst them were:

(i) the Joint Economic Council (JEC);

(ii) the tripartite body, government, employers and workers to decide on pay and salary compensation;

(iii) meetings with the Mauritius Employers Federation and trade unions on economic issues.

Those mechanisms and committees operated both at the national level and sector-wise. They created an atmosphere of trust which had not existed before.

Mauritius has since the mid-1970s been trying to obtain a greater participation of the private sector in vocational education and training. When a proposal was made in 1978 to the Ministry of Education, which was also responsible for training, to obtain the views of business and industry in the identification of the courses to be organized, there was a feeling of uneasiness at the Ministry. Some felt that such an approach meant abdicating to the private sector. Ultimately all were convinced of the need to collaborate and government made an opening to obtain the views of the private sector. Initially the participation was advisory and on an ad-hoc basis.

Once the employers participated in the identification of the courses to be run, they very willingly collaborated in the design and development of the curriculum. They brought in their contributions wholeheartedly as the management team openly showed its appreciation. The employers were represented by specialists at the level of the different curriculum committees. Such an approach further strengthened the bond between the two sectors.

Since the employers saw themselves as partners, they very willingly accepted to welcome the students for short attachments in industry. Thus a new relationship was born as industry felt proud of not only being consulted, but also for shaping the students to its culture. During the period of attachment the students were closely followed by experienced workers who also assessed their performance.

This non-formal relationship slowly acquired a formal character. The ad hoc advisory committees started meeting senior officers from the Ministry of Finance and the Establishment Division, to thrash out bottlenecks and to make suggestions for improving the management and financing of Vocational Education and Training.

This first attempt at collaboration built a certain degree of trust between the partners. Eventually, in 1980, government decided to set up a specific body, the Central Training Office (CTO), to increase the collaboration of the private sector in the provision of VET. The managing board of the CTO was composed of 20 members with seven from the public sector, six representatives of employers, two representatives of workers, four from professional associations and one representative of the public. This first attempt to improve training provision lasted until 1986.

Two years later, after studying proposals from different ministries for the planning and organization of training, government adopted the proposal from the Minister of Education to create the Industrial and Vocational Training Board. Immediately a committee was set up with representatives from the government and the private sector to draft the bill.

Once the bill was passed, the Council of the Industrial and Vocational Training Board was constituted and it set to work translating into action the objects of the Act. The members of the Council behaved as one body, taking decisions not in favour of the government or the private sector, but in the interest of the country.

The workers in Mauritius are also well organized and this facilitates communication with them. They are grouped into more than 300 trade unions, which are, in turn, grouped into 10 federations of trade unions which, in turn, form three confederations of unions. The workers express their views and suggestions through the federations, which are represented at the level of the Training Advisory Committees of the IVTB.

Representatives of workers usually sort out the workers' problems through direct negotiations with the employers. It is only when a solution to the problem is not found that the Ministry of Labour and Industrial Relations intervenes. Large numbers of the trade disputes reported are settled through negotiation. This mechanism further improves communication amongst the different partners.

3. Legal and institutional framework

3.1 Legislation

The experience acquired in the setting up of the CTO helped in the creation of the IVTB. A high-level Committee made up of members from the private and public sectors formulated the Industrial and Vocational Training Bill which was enacted by the Legislative Assembly in April 1988. Subsequently, the Industrial and Vocational Training Board (IVTB) was set up, as a parastatal body, under the direct responsibility of the Prime Minister, to assume the following responsibilities:

· to advise the Minister on matters relating to training;

· to monitor training needs in consultation with relevant authorities;

· to administer, control and operate training schemes;

· to provide for, promote, assist in and regulate the training or apprenticeship of persons who are or will be employed in commercial, technical and vocational fields.

3.2 Composition of the Council

The IVTB is administered and controlled by a Council which consists of seven members from the public sector and seven members from the private sector. The Council is composed of:

· a Chairman, appointed by the Prime Minister;

· a Vice-Chairman, appointed by the Minister in charge of technical training, in consultation with the Mauritius Employers' Federation;

· a representative of the Ministry of Manpower Resources and Vocational and Technical Training;

· a representative of the Prime Minister's Office;

· a representative of the Ministry of Economic Planning and Development;

· a representative of the Ministry of Education and Science;

· a representative of the Ministry of Industry and Industrial Technology;

· a representative of the Ministry for Civil Service Affairs and Employment; and

· six representatives of the private sector appointed by the Minister responsible for vocational training.

Members of the Council normally hold office for a period of two years and are eligible for re-appointment. The Council may, with the approval of the Minister, co-opt a maximum of five other persons to be members of the Council. The co-opted members do not have the right to vote.

Within the legal framework, the institutions and other partners involved in training are provided with the autonomy required for efficient and effective management.

The principle of partnership was defined in the Act itself, i.e. equal representation and total collaboration. At the same time provision was made in the Act to operate a levy/grant system to promote the development of training. In 1991, a ministry was created to be responsible for Manpower planning and training. The Minister was nominated by the Prime Minister to be the Chairman of the Council of the IVTB to maintain the high level of participation in the decision-making process.

Although the objective of the partnership was not written down, the parity and the high level of representation gave the partnership all the ingredients for success.

3.3 Management structures and mechanisms

As specified in the IVT Act 1988, the Board is managed and controlled by the Council, which is the policy-making body. The management structure and monitoring mechanisms are considered below.

3.3.1 Policy and decision-making

The main objective behind the setting up of the Council of IVTB was to minimize bureaucratic procedures and ensure rapid decision-making and its implementation. The autonomy enjoyed by the Council in this sense has contributed largely towards this goal. The decisions are, therefore, taken at Council level, where representatives of the different ministries, including the Ministry of Employment, Manpower Resources and Training, are present. Furthermore, such decisions taken by Council normally have the prior approval of the various parties concerned, including the relevant Training Advisory Committees (TAC) and other sub-committees. This process ensures that there is consultation at the different levels. To activate decision taking, the Council of the IVTB has delegated some of its authority to a small subcommittee. This allows certain urgent decisions to be made with covering approval of the Council obtained afterwards. Such a practice has allowed rapid decisions to be taken on various issues and has largely contributed to making the Board more efficient. Once these decisions are taken by Council, they are implemented by the Board.

3.3.2 Distribution of power within the Council

In accordance with the IVT Act 1988, and subsequent amendments in 1991, the Council is composed of 14 members - seven from the private and seven from the public sector. The quorum for Council meetings is eight.

Each member commands one vote and the private and public sector representatives are, therefore, at parity in terms of voting rights and power. As already mentioned, the co-opted members do not have any voting rights.

It is interesting to note that as at 1995, the Council has never had to go for a vote as all decisions have been approved unanimously by all members present. This highlights the sense of collaboration and the private-public sector partnership that exists at the level of the Council. Decisions taken by Council can, therefore, be on a consensus basis, a majority vote basis or on the basis of unanimity. The Council has also designated sub-committees to which it has delegated certain powers to accelerate decision-making.

3.3.3 Management structure of the Board

The IVTB is formed along functional lines, whilst it is helping all training institutions and firms to become formally organized. It was originally structured as shown in the following Figure 2.

However, with the increase of its activities and its rapid growth, the organizational structure has been reviewed. In 1995 the organizational structure included eight divisions (Figure 3).

Divisions are sub-divided into sections. In some cases, sections are formed according to the type of service they provide, whilst in other cases it is the geographical distribution of facilities, trainees, etc., which has precedence.

As specified in the IVT Act 1988 and subsequent amendments in 1991, the Director is the Chief Executive Officer of the Board. The Director is responsible for the execution of the policy and the control and management of the day-to-day business of the Board.

3.3.4 Co-ordination junctions of the Board

According to the IVT Act of 1988, all private training institutions are required to obtain registration from the IVTB. In order to be registered, training institutions must satisfy the requirements of the Board in terms of training personnel, workshop facilities and training programmes to be able to conduct courses at specific levels for various trades/fields.

IVTB ensures that quality standards in training are maintained by keeping a register of all training institutions as well as trainers. IVTB has a specific division, which is responsible for maintaining constant and regular contacts with private training institutions. Furthermore, the Division makes sure that the criteria for registration are satisfied. It is responsible for monitoring training and effects visits to the institutions, private and public, to ensure the maintenance of quality.

The quality of the training provided depends amongst other factors upon:

· the quality of the physical facilities;
· the quality of the trainers;
· the relevance of the course; and
· the management of the course.

To maintain a set standard, the IVTB has established criteria to govern the registration of centres, the registration of trainers, and the approval of a training course/programme. Such measures ensure that the training is properly organized and its quality does not suffer through quantitative expansion.

4. Areas of partnership

Partnership is not only a word which is used to describe the relationship at the level of the Council. It percolates the system through:

· policy formulation;
· training financing;
· curriculum development and certification.

4.1 Policy formulation

The Council of the IVTB is the policy-making body for training. As pointed out earlier, the Council is a partnership with seven members from the private sector and seven from the public sector. In addition, before any policy is established, extensive consultation takes place between the IVTB and with the different partners (trade unions, pressure group, etc.) to obtain as many views as possible. This system enables policies to be formulated within a coherent framework.

The representatives of the Employers' Federation always participate in the decision-making process. They represent the Federation in the different committees and very often chair the committees. This mechanism guarantees the collaboration of the employers. As required, the IVTB collaborates with the Employers' Federation to ensure wide dissemination of the information to its members.

The trade unions are also represented at the level of the Training Advisory Committees and thus participate actively in the decision-making process. Some of the unions identify their own training needs and carry out training for their members.

A good communication system among the partners fuels the participation process and reduces the risk of conflict.

4.2. Financing training: an incentive-based system

The partnership established at the IVTB also provided for the promotion of training through financial incentives. All employers paying a levy to the IVTB are entitled to a grant which depends on the rate at which the company is taxed and on investment in training. Employers receive from the IVTB incentives varying between 39 and 53 per cent of their investment in training, which may be carried out in-house, on-the-job, or in an institution.

Employers investing in training are allowed a tax rebate equal to 100 per cent (formerly it was 200 per cent) of their investment, provided they produce a certificate showing that the course was approved by the IVTB.

Individuals paying for their own training, or parents paying for their wards, are allowed to deduct 15,000 rupees from their taxable income if the course is followed in an IVTB institution. One commercial bank has also agreed to provide loans, to be refunded once the trainees have completed their course and start work.

Training providers are given duty-free facilities on the import of selected equipment used for training. The IVTB studies the list of equipment and ensures that it matches the curriculum before recommending it to the Ministry of Finance which allows the duty-free import. In addition, the managers of registered centres have access to soft loans from the Development Bank of Mauritius.

Small operators, who are reluctant to organize training or to release their workers for training, are being provided with a voucher which they may use to pay for training approved by the IVTB.

Financing training entails a form of partnership involving:

· the government;
· the employers;
· the IVTB;
· individuals; international aid.

4.2.1 The government

Government has overall responsibility for training and provides funds to meet 85 per cent of the capital expenditure and 50 per cent of the recurrent costs of the IVTB. In addition, it provides other incentives, described below, to promote training.

4.2.2 The employers

In 1989, the Council recommended the collection of a levy (as per the IVTB Act) of 1 per cent on the basic salaries of all employees, excluding household workers, to be paid by all employers into a fund managed by the IVTB. The levy on the wage bill was adopted, after considering several other alternatives such as:

(i) a levy on exports

Such a levy would have been easy but would have been seen as an additional tax on those who were producing for export. That would have been counter to the policy of the government, which was to promote exports.

(ii) a levy on imports

This levy would again have been seen as an additional tax and would not have brought out the link to human resource development.

(iii) A levy on turnover

More productive industries have a better turnover than the ill-performing ones and a levy on turnover would have had a negative effect on productivity. Besides, the service industries, which have a bigger turnover per employee, might have been penalized.

(iv) A levy by sector of employment

This would have involved classifying all the industries into different sectors and collecting the levy and keeping separate accounts by sector. The administration of such a system would have been very cumbersome. At the same time, the embryonic sectors would not have had sufficient funds for development.

(v) The levy on the basic wage bill

The levy on the basic wage bill, excluding overtime pay and bonus, was found to be fairer and easier to administer. The levy was paid by all employers - except those of household workers - irrespective of the number of workers, as fixing a minimum number of employees for the payment of the levy would have created a large number of employers employing people just below the number required in order to benefit from the payment of the levy. This would have again been against the declared policy for job creation.

The collection of the levy was entrusted, against the payment of a commission, to the National Pension Fund, which already operated a system for collecting the contributions to the National Pension Fund. Up to now, this arrangement is satisfactory to the IVTB.

The proceeds from the levy are used to finance 50 per cent of the recurrent expenditure and 15 per cent of the capital expenditure of the IVTB.

Such a system allows flexibility to the IVTB to cater for the present as well as the forthcoming training needs of the country.

The main items of recurrent expenditure of the Board are:

· salaries of personnel;
· consumables;
· utility services; and
· grants.

The main items of capital expenditure are:

· the construction of physical facilities;
· the provision of equipment.

4.2.3 The IVTB

The IVTB grant system provides an incentive to employers paying the levy to sponsor their workers for training. Once a training course is approved by the IVTB, the employer is entitled to a grant which is made up of two components:

An incentive from the IVTB based on the following formula:

1 = c × [1 - (0.25/1 - 2r)]
(4.1)

where:

c is the cost of training,
r is the tax rate of the company, and
100 per cent tax rebate on the investment in training.

According to the above formula, initially, employers were providing for around 25 per cent of the training cost, but in 1995 the formula was revised because of a government decision and the employers had to bear 40 per cent of the cost. Companies in Mauritius pay income tax at the rate of 15,25 and 35 per cent. The incentives from the IVTB, after considering the tax rebate, are shown below in Table 1.

The IVTB thus provides a direct grant of 39-53 per cent of training cost to employers.

Table 1. Incentive from IVTB

Tax payable	Employer's contribution	Tax rebate	IVTB incentive
15%	40%	7%	53%
25%	40%	13%	7%
35%	40%	21%	39%

Employers investing less than a hundred thousand rupees in training receive the incentive irrespective of their contribution, whereas those investing more than a hundred thousand rupees are entitled to a grant which is equivalent to twice their levy contribution.

Table 2. Number of persons benefiting from training

	1989/90	1990/91	1991/92	1992/93	1993/94	1994/95	Total
Sponsored	2,744	8,443	5,697	6,500	13,127	15,170	51,681
Non-sponsored	-	-	5,748	10,790	12,239	13,100	41,877
Total	2,744	8,443	11,445	17,290	25,366	28,270	93,558

The number of persons benefiting from training between 1989 and 1995 is given in Table 2. It is observed that the system is operating satisfactorily and is encouraging employers to train more of the workers and invest more and more in training. Many employers, the forward-looking ones, are already looking at training as an investment rather than a cost and are investing, at times around 5 per cent of the basic wage bill of the company, in training.

The training budget since 1988 has evolved very quickly. More than one billion rupees had been invested in training by 1995. A database is being set up to obtain additional information on the operation of the levy-grant system to encourage still more of the employers to invest in training. Such a system of financing provides safety nets against doing training for the sake of training. It also renders IVTB accountable for prompt implementation of the different training schemes.

4.2.4 The individuals

Training is expensive and it was in the past financed almost totally by the government. The fees charged were negligible compared to the cost of training. The training centres operated by the IVTB have to earn a percentage of the recurrent expenditure through the charging of fees and sales of products. The fees charged, which represent only part of the training cost in the IVTB centres and the real cost in the private centres, are paid either by the individual or the sponsors. During 1994, the eight IVTB centres earned between 6 and 30 per cent of their recurrent expenditure. Here again, managers and trainers are sensitized to the notion of costs and financing.

4.2.5 Bilateral and multilateral aid

The IVTB, during its first years of operation, acquired the reputation of being effective and efficient and caught the interest of aid donors. It has obtained assistance from various bilateral and international donors.

4.3 Curriculum development and certification

The quality of a training programme depends largely on the proper design of its curriculum. The curriculum is the very heart of a training programme in the sense that all the resources and activities required to conduct a training programme emerge from the curriculum. Formerly, curriculum development for training was almost non-existent. Only syllabuses from overseas were used as a guideline for the different examinations. At the outset, the IVTB has realized the importance of establishing close and structured collaboration with enterprises to cater for the dynamic and continuous development of training programmes and content in line with labour market needs.

4.3.1 Role and performance of the Training Advisory Committees (TAC)

One of the main tasks undertaken by the IVTB from the very outset was the identification of training needs in the existing and priority sectors. This was done in collaboration with the industrial sector. The IVTB Council approved the setting up of TACs with the following terms of reference:

· to service as liaison and an avenue of communication and feedback between Commerce and Industry and the Board;

· to examine and review the programmes and facilities for training provided by the Board and by Commerce and Industry and to advise on how training of persons for vocation and skill employment in Commerce and Industry can be provided for, promoted and improved to meet the requirements of the economy;

· to advise on the development of the curriculum at different levels for the various training programmes.

Each TAC comprises professionals from the relevant organization in the private and public sectors and their main objectives are to help in:

· identification of training needs;
· course design;
· certification and evaluation of training programmes.

By 1995,21 TACs were set up in the following fields: agriculture/sugar, automation, banking and insurance, beauty care and hairdressing, building construction, civil works, design, electronics, footwear and leathercraft, furniture making, heavy vehicle driving, hotel and catering, industry information technology, jewellery, management, office skills, plastics, precision engineering and machining, pre-vocational training, printing and textiles.

At the very conception stage of any project, the collaboration of the relevant TAC is sought by the Board, for professional advice.

TACs also provide a useful mechanism for problem solving. All problems are studied by the Board and referred to the respective TAC for its recommendations. Should a TAC not exist to tackle the problem, a subcommittee is designated by the Council to study the problem and make recommendations. The recommendations are then submitted to the Council for its approval. Should the Council feel that additional information is required, it may request it from the Board before a decision is reached. Such a system has worked in practice, and has been giving satisfaction to all those concerned, as this structure provides an opportunity for wide consultation.

4.3.2 The approach to curriculum development

The curriculum development model adopted by IVTB is represented in Figure 4.

The training needs are identified by job analysis and using the 'Developing a curriculum model' (DACUM). DACUM is a relatively new and innovative approach to occupational analysis. It has proved to be a very effective tool in quickly determining, at relatively low cost, the tasks that must be performed by persons employed in a given job or occupational area.

The profile chart that results from the DACUM analysis is a detailed and graphic portrayal of the duties and tasks involved in the occupation or job being studied. The DACUM analysis can be used as a basis for (1) Curriculum development, (2) student counselling and recruitment, (3) training needs assessment, (4) worker performance evaluation, (5) competency test development, and (6) job description.

The main features of the curriculum development by IVTB are, that the curricula are:

· competency based;
· modular;
· based on behavioural instructional objectives.

The above approach provides flexibilities in the training system; competencies can be tested at specified standards and the monitoring of the trainees' progress is possible by relating to the behavioural objectives.

Different Training Advisory Committees validate the curriculum before implementation. Such an approach guarantees the participation of the active partners in curriculum development.

In spite of its merits, the introduction of a modular system with continuous assessment is posing a problem in its management. The situation is being further exacerbated by the introduction of competency-based learning and testing. The trainers have to change their attitudes to adapt to this new system whilst the Mauritius Examination Syndicate, which is responsible for the carrying out of the examinations, will also need to adapt to this new environment.

4.3.3 National Trade Certification System

The standards to be attained by the different curricula are governed by the National Trade Certification System, which was developed together with the employers and trade unions and published in the Government Gazette to give it national recognition. The National Trade Certification (NTC) System has introduced a 'benchmark' in training and certification in Mauritius. It envisages three levels of certificate qualifications, i.e. basic level - level 3; a standard skilled level - level 2; and an advanced level - level 1.

At present NTC 3- and NTC 2-level curricula have been developed for mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, electronics, building and automotive trades, jewellery, printing, precision engineering, industrial furniture making, footwear and leathercraft and hotel and catering.

More curricula in new and emerging trades such as plastics and design are being developed. The examinations for the NTC are carried out in collaboration with the Mauritius Examination Syndicate (MES).

5. Critical issues


5.1 Regarding workers' participation

There is a strong belief that a tripartite Council made up of representatives of government, employers and workers is better than a bipartite one made up of representatives of government and employers only. At the same time, a smaller Council is thought to be more efficient and effective. The existence of a large number of trade unions and federations of trade unions makes the choice of representatives for a fair representation more difficult. However, that in itself is not a sufficient reason for not having representatives of workers at the Council level. The Council of the IVTB tried to co-opt a representative of the workers from the different federations of trade unions, but did not succeed as it was not easy for the different federations to arrive at a consensus and to designate a representative. Thus, the Council operated with a bipartite structure, as provided for in the IVTB Act.

Representatives of workers form part of the different advisory committees and thus contribute towards the decision-making process. It should be noted that such a management structure depends to a large extent on the quality of the people forming part of the committees rather than the formal structures.

5.2 Regarding employers' participation

The IVTB promotes training and strongly believes that the private sector should take care of its own needs. The private sector has provided some training in industry, established training facilities in some firms, and set up a large number of training institutions where relatively little equipment and investment is required. In spite of such achievements, employers' participation sometimes raises an issue of possible conflicts of interest.

For instance, the employers contribute to the financing of the training through a levy and, at times, vested interests of certain members at the level of the TAC hinder, to a certain extent, fair competition. It is very difficult to have all the members approving training programmes or training schemes to be totally objective, with no bias.

5.3 Regarding government participation

In spite of the creation of a separate ministry to look after training, for a large number of people, there is still confusion about education and training. Moreover, Mauritius has inherited a system of administration based on the British pattern, where those taking the final decision may be very good administrators, but may not have sufficient professional competence and thus rely totally on the advice of others to give direction to technical education and training where certain grey areas still exist.

5.4 Regarding sustainability

Sustaining partnership over a long period of time is not easy, as a change of members may affect the relationship. However, the different structures, such as the TACs and sub-committees of the Council, help in maintaining this delicate partnership. It is not easy to maintain such a partnership and, at the same time, not lose sight of the goals of development and this is often the case in many organizations. The success of such a venture depends, to a large extent, upon the calibre, commitment, leadership and managerial qualities of those at the head.

The sort of partnership existing at the IVTB, where a member of the Council or the Training Advisory Committee may also be involved in training, gives rise to situations involving conflicts of interest. A decision taken by the Council as a whole may not be favourable to both the private and the public sector. Situations where the interests of the two partners may be divergent occur, but, again, the problems have to be resolved not in favour of one or the other partner, but in favour of training and human resource development.

6. Performance

How a partnership performs depends on who is evaluating it. It is not easy, especially in the case of a partnership involving the government, the employers and the workers, to have a totally convergent view. The opinions of the partners are given below.

6.1 Opinion of employers

The Employers' Federation has over the last two decades been pressing the government to organize training to promote the development of the country. They had also been strongly in favour of a partnership with the government. The employers were very happy to see that training was given the place it deserved in the development of the country when it was placed under the direct responsibility of the Prime Minister. The partnership was strengthened further when it was provided for in the Act that the Vice-Chairman would be nominated in consultation with the Employers' Federation.

Once the Council was established, it enjoyed complete freedom of action and above all the unqualified support of the Prime Minister. This relationship motivated the employers to give their total commitment to training. The employers participated actively in the policy-making process. They also provided directions and guidance through the Training Advisory Committees, which were usually chaired by a professional from the private sector. The TAC management is chaired by a specialist manager, the TAC textile by a specialist from the textile industries, etc.

Through the type of partnership established, the employers saw beyond the reefs of Mauritius. They found, through the partnership, an opportunity to share with the region the experience gained. They also believe that the strength of the individual member state lies in the strength of the regions as a whole.

The setting up of the different centres was seen in a much broader context, with a distant vision of the future. The centres and the different facilities that have been set up fit into that vision as Mauritians will have to take up the challenge to work together to strengthen the region.

6.2 Opinion of trade unions

The trade unions would like to be represented at the level of the Council and are conscious of the difficulty in the designation of a representative. However, they feel committed to the cause of the workers and would always assist in their advancement.

They saw, through the different mechanisms established by the IVTB, an opportunity for them to make their voices heard and to participate actively in the development of training. The relationship they had with the IVTB prompted them to start training programmes for their members. At one stage, they were thinking of having a centre of their own.

They also feel that some representatives of the employers who sit on certain advisory committees use their position to protect certain vested interests. They feel that members who cannot be objective should refrain from influencing decisions concerning the development of the country.

In spite of those shortcomings they are convinced that the partnership established at the IVTB was a move in the right direction and they have always given total support to its development. They also noted that the success of the partnership very often depends on the quality of the people they are dealing with, rather than on the mechanism itself.

6.3 Opinion of the public sector

The public sector saw, through the establishment of the partnership at the IVTB, a mechanism:

· to better plan, monitor and promote training;
· to obtain the commitment of the employers;
· to obtain the participation of the workers.

The public sector was aware of the fact that all training schemes undertaken by the government alone, either become obsolete after some time, or fall apart because of the inertia existing in that sector. It saw, through the partnership, an opportunity to have the opinions of all the partners concerned with regard to training.

The establishment of the Council with equal representation from both the public and the private sectors, as well as the establishment of the levy grant system, only strengthened the trust of the government in the partnership. However, the aim was not only to collect funds but, through the mechanism set up, to obtain the participation and commitment of the employers and others to training.

6.4 Perceived benefits of partnership

6.4.1 To employers

Mauritius has a mixed economy and employers participate in the development of the country. They found through the partnership at the IVTB:

(i) the willingness of the government to further strengthen the collaboration;
(ii) an opportunity to contribute to the development of the economy;
(iii) an opportunity to help in taking better decisions with regard to training;
(iv) an opportunity to make judicious use of public funds.

(i) The willingness of the government to further strengthen the collaboration

The private sector had already collaborated with the government in the development of the country at the national level. It saw, through the establishment of the IVTB and its managing Council with parity representation from the public and private sectors, the commitment and determination of the government to further strengthen that collaboration.

(ii) An opportunity to contribute to the development of the economy

Mauritius is heavily dependent on the quality of its workforce for its economic development. The private sector is very much aware of it. The partnership provided a great opportunity for the private sector to influence the development of the workforce.

(iii) An opportunity to help in taking better decisions for training

The public sector is always criticized for not listening to the views of the private sector, especially concerning education and training. In this case the private sector was pleased to see, through the mechanism at the IVTB, an opportunity to contribute and to have better-quality decisions taken, particularly for the management and financing of training.

(iv) An opportunity to make judicious use of public funds

The private sector has a feeling that funds devoted to certain items of expenditure can be better utilized. The partnership provided it with an opportunity not only to decide on the use of funds, but also on their collection and the monitoring of their use.

6.4.2 To workers

Workers in Mauritius have a thirst to learn and to improve their status. They saw, through the partnership at the IVTB:

(i) the commitment of the government to improve their status;
(ii) an opportunity for them to learn and to have a different career path;
(iii) an opportunity to participate in decisions relative to training;
(iv) an opportunity to improve the quality and working conditions of the workers.

(i) The commitment of the government to improve their status

The establishment of the IVTB to provide better opportunities to school-leavers, and an opportunity for the workers to upgrade themselves, was seen as a laudable effort by the trade unions. The workers were provided with facilities and opportunities to improve their competencies and aspire to better living conditions.

(ii) An opportunity for a better career path

A young worker, after joining an organization, discovers many hard 'facts of life'. Very often he is helpless. The creation of the IVTB brought much hope as it provided him with opportunities to learn on the job or off the job and to choose a career path.

(iii) An opportunity to participate in decisions relating to training

In many situations workers are not consulted. The IVTB has established a mechanism through the different advisory committees to obtain the views of workers. This helps in providing the workers with a sense of pride and, when it comes to developing the curriculum, they are the participants who determine what goes into it through the DACUM process.

(iv) An opportunity to improve the quality and working conditions of the workers

An educated and trained force is not only more productive, but also more conscious of safety at work. Thus, the workforce has had an opportunity to upgrade itself and to use its new acquisitions of knowledge and skills for demanding better conditions at work.

6.4.3 To government

In spite of IVTB's youth, government has had long experience in the management and financing of training. Different models were proposed by experts with experience in different situations, and were implemented. The success of the models was not always as expected.

Government realized that for training to be beneficial, it has to be undertaken as a partnership amongst all those concerned. From the beginning it had realized the importance of such a partnership and always acted in a way to promote that partnership. The benefits of such a partnership are numerous. However, a few main ones are described below:

(i) to keep in touch with industry and industrial development;
(ii) to minimize cost;
(iii) to increase efficiency and effectiveness;
(iv) to develop the right culture for development;
(v) to maintain and sustain on a longer term quality training;
(vi) to avoid duplication and wastage;
(vii) to reduce the division between the private sector and the public sector.

(i) To keep in touch with industry and industrial development

Collaboration and exchange are greatly facilitated through the partnership. Industry welcomes trainees from the different centres for practical work experience. The trainees are easily placed and accepted by industry as the Board maintains regular contact with it. During the attachment workers not only provide training opportunities to the trainees, but also follow and evaluate them and their work. The workers are proud of their contribution and feel honoured to participate in the evaluation exercise.

At the same time, members from industry have the opportunity of meeting the trainees at the different centres and to address them. Such an exchange, apart from helping in the cognitive development of the trainees, promotes a positive change in their attitude.

(ii) To minimize cost

Time and again we are reminded that training is expensive. The collaboration obtained through the partnership enables us to find the most economical solutions to a training problem. For example, if an item of equipment is very expensive and is going to be used only for a short period of time and is available in industry, arrangements are made to enable the trainees to practise on the equipment in industry itself.

The centres which formerly operated mostly during school hours, are now open for longer hours, that is until much later in the evening. They run after-hour programmes directed to the specific needs of industry, which are attended mostly by workers who are sponsored by their employers.

These centres also sell their services to industry. They act as consultants in solving specific problems of industry. At the same time they sell the products which are made by the trainees.

Such a system has made the centres much more cost-conscious and has helped in minimizing cost.

(iii) To increase efficiency and effectiveness

The designing of the curriculum as at 4.3 above ensures better relevance of the training to the needs of industry. The constant involvement of the private sector at the different levels (Council, TACs, ad-hoc committees) promotes the linkage between the centres and industry and the effectiveness of the training.

The linkage provides opportunities to the trainers and the trainees to learn about efficiency and hence to consider the 'time' factor in implementing their programmes. The implementation of the training programme, which is competency based (CBT), coupled with the consideration of the time factor enables the trainees to be conscious of efficiency.

Ultimately, the trainees learn to be efficient and effective and thus provide the sharp edge to industry.

(iv) To develop the right culture for development

Very often employers complain about the performance of the graduates from training centres. The main reproach made is that the graduates are either not mature or do not have the industrial culture.

The interaction with industry through the partnership, helps the trainees to observe and to acquire the work culture. In today's world, such an exposure only reinforces the importance of discipline, punctuality, team spirit and other social attitudes.

It is almost impossible to provide such an attitudinal change only at the training centre.

(v) To maintain quality training

Quality is just like industrial culture. It cannot be taught in a classroom situation alone. It is more effectively learned in a real-life situation.

The trainee, on attachment to an enterprise, has the opportunity to see the effects of non-quality on the products, and the cost to the enterprise. The exchange reinforces the notion of quality in the trainee. At the training centre, as well, he would insist on quality work and he himself would strive to produce better-quality products. The 'quality culture' is becoming more and more important in this competitive world and, here again, the partnership only sharpens the quality buds.

(vi) Avoid duplication and wastage

Before the setting up of the IVTB, many ministries and private centres were doing training. There was, at times, competition between ministries. Some of them were involved in cost cutting by looking for trainers with no notion of standard practices but who would carry out the training at a lower cost. Those doing 'similar' courses with professional input and charging higher fees were the losers as they would not attract many trainees. The different institutions carrying out training were all awarding certificates with no reference to any standard.

The approval of the training courses; the registration of the trainers and the training centres by the IVTB has greatly helped in bringing order to a chaotic situation. At the course approval stage, several factors (like level, quality relevance) are considered before approval is granted. Again the partnership has helped in improving the quality of the training and avoiding the wastage of scarce resources.

(vii) Reduce the division between the private sector and the public sector

In many of the developing countries, the private and public sectors are seen as two different entities with diverging goals. Very often there is no communication between the two except through legislation and control. However, the partnership existing at the IVTB has provided a forum where the two partners meet and discuss issues of common interest. That interaction has produced better understanding between the two partners and enabled representatives of ministries to obtain professional guidance at times on topics associated with training, to help in taking steps to promote the development of the country.

Very often the Council behaves like an entity with converging views. The appearance of the two sectors together at all the official functions concerning training has further dissipated the pre-conceived ideas people had about them. In the end, the two sectors behaved as one and only thought about the development of the country, rather than looking for selfish and short-term benefits.

7. Conclusion: conditions for success


The IVTB demonstrates that any partnership depends most on the people at the decision-making level. However, the experience of Mauritius in managing TVET indicates that effective partnership also needs a favourable environment. It includes elements such as:

(i) a good information system. Information is essential to avoid misunderstandings and conflicts amongst the partners;

(ii) a supportive fiscal policy. A financial or fiscal measure may either motivate or discourage employers from investing in training;

(iii) a structured labour market. The wage difference between a skilled worker and an unskilled worker may affect investment in training by employers;

(iv) a culture of social dialogue. The relationship between the private sector, the trade unions and the government at the national level has a strong effect on the partnership.

Beyond such individual and contextual factors, genuine partnership requires adequate policies, instruments and mechanisms. Policies always play an important role in the success of a scheme. Clear-cut policies should be enunciated to avoid grey areas as, very often a lot of time is wasted in clarifying matters falling within those areas. Very often, those who would like to delay a decision would take advantage of a lack of transparency.

Furthermore, sustainable partnership is based on a series of legal instruments which allows to clarify the role and responsibilities of each partner, as well as the 'rules of the game'. Financing regulations, e.g. a levy-grant scheme, regulations for the registration of training institutions, regulations for the certification system, apprenticeship regulations, regulations defining the autonomy of public training centres, constitute the legal foundations on which partnership can grow.

At the operational level, the concept of partnership must be reflected in the decision-making mechanisms. The formula initially established at the IVTB, with equal representation from the private and public sector, has greatly facilitated the working out and taking of sound policy decisions. The planning, co-ordination, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of training were carried out through consensus amongst the social partners, the government and the IVTB.

Finally, the experience of the IVTB also shows that, in spite of a favourable policy environment and a supportive institutional framework, partnership always remains fragile. Hence, partnership essentially relies on trust, without which it cannot exist or last.

Bibliography


Industrial and Vocational Training Board. 1994. Five Years, 1989-1994. Ebene, Rose Hill: IVTB.

Ministry of Economic Planning and Development. 1995. Economic Indicators, 1990 to 1996. Port Louis: Government Printing.

Ministry of Economic Planning and Development. 1996. Mauritius Economic Review 1992-1995. Port Louis: Government Printing.

Munbodh, S. 1995. In: International Encyclopedia on National System of Education. Pergamon Press, 2nd Edition.

Munbodh, S. 1996. "Partnership in the management and co-ordination of training". In: D. Atchoarena (ed.). The financing and management of vocational education and training in Eastern and Southern Africa - Report of a sub-regional workshop, Mauritius, 18-21 March 1996. Paris: UNESCO: International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP).

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