Foreword

Technical and vocational education has always been an important component of UNESCO’s consecutive Medium Term Plans. The basic objective of this programme is to support the efforts of Member States to link education systems more closely to the world of work and to promote the expansion and improvement of technical and vocational education in the light of changing employment needs.

The Colombo Plan Staff College for Technician Education (CPSC) also dedicates itself primarily to enhancing the growth and development of the technician education systems in its member countries which are located in the Asia and Pacific region. Its programmes, projects and activities are geared to provide the needed impetus for the professional development of senior level personnel involved in technician education development efforts.

UNESCO has launched an International Project on Technical and Vocational Education (UNEVOC) as of 1992 in co-operation with the Government of Germany, ILO, FAO, UNDP and NGOs interested in the reform of technical and vocational education. This project focuses on exchanging information, research and experiences on policy and programme issues in technical and vocational through a network of cooperating institutions.

In a spirit of co-operation between UNESCO and CPSC, under UNEVOC, an attempt is being made to compile and publish studies on the development of technical and vocational education in Member States in the form of TVE profiles of 21 countries. It is hoped that this series will serve as a handy reference information on TVE systems, staff development, technical co-operation and information networking. These studies have been possible because of the full co-operation to UNESCO PROAP and CPSC by all concerned in the Member States.

The opinions expressed in this study are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the position of UNESCO and CPSC in this regard. The valuable contributions of Prof. A.K. Mishra, Director, Central Institute of Vocational Education, India in the editing, analysis and synthesis of the studies are highly appreciated.

C.K. Basu 　　　Director, CPSC
Victor Ordonez　Director, UNESCO PROAP

Regional Synthesis

Geography and Climate


The eastern boundary of the region is set by the Islamic Republic of Iran while in the extreme west lies the Fiji Islands split by the 180th Meridian. The southern boundary is set by Australia while the northern boundary by Japan. In the central part of the region are some of the highest peaks of the Himalayas. There are three great oceans, Indian, Pacific and Arctic which provide the enormous coastline for these countries. The region also possesses some of the largest deserts in Iran, Pakistan, India, China and Australia.

The climate variations are equally pronounced. Alpine, temperate, subtropical and tropical climates are found not only in the region as a whole but in several countries individually such as Iran, India, Australia and China.

Yet all countries represented in this volume have immense inherent desire and drive to develop their economy and human resources so as to have a competitive edge in the global market. And with this in view, they accord high priority to TVET in particular, and education in general for developing manpower with the proper skill mix in the society.

Economic Reforms and TVE


The global competition has forced all countries of the region to take a second look at their economies and initiate measures of economic reforms. It is evident in command economies like China and Viet Nam as well as in the mixed economy of India, and several other countries which have greater orientation to free market trading practices.

The command economy of Vietnam has adopted the open door policy for collaboration with foreign countries to set up joint ventures and has increased investment from inside through its broadened policies. As a consequence to this, it is anticipated that there will be a big shortage of appropriately skilled personnel and technicians in future. Similarly, the largest command economy, China, has adopted reform and an open door policy since the end of 70s. It has been accelerating its domestic production and international trade, foreign investment and advanced technology so as to develop its economy faster and better. In 1992, the Chinese Government moved towards a socialist market economy. Under this the country is transiting from planned economy to the world market economy system by gradually moving to export oriented economy and gearing its domestic production to international trade. In order to meet the demands being generated to meet this change over, China needs more elementary and intermediate technical personnel, managerial personnel and skilled workers. The TVET is being geared to answer the demands of the market economy for qualified labour force.

Myanmar, which is another country which chose to remain largely isolated from the rest of the world, changed its economic policy from a centrally planned to a market oriented economy by opening up the investment opportunities and liberalizing trade. The foreign investment policy mainly seeks to promote and expand export of natural resources, to acquire high technology and to support capital intensive production and services. Entrepreneurship development and training, like in India, Australia, Malaysia and others, has been accented in Myanmar and has found a place on the TVET agenda for keeping pace with marketization.

The three examples of the shift from centrally planned to market oriented economy show remarkable resemblance with the situation prevailing in those countries where market economy has been the prevailing pattern. One can take the examples of Malaysia, Japan and Thailand to relate the qualitative and macro aspects of the demand of economy placed on the TVET system.

The profile of Malaysian economy has changed radically since independence in 1957. Manufacturing has emerged as the leading economic sector followed by agriculture and mining. The share of the manufacturing sector in GDP has grown from 13.4 per cent in 1970 to 25.1 per cent in 1987, while that of the agricultural sector has declined from 30.8 per cent to 20.4 per cent over the same period. As the country progresses through the 90s, the growth trend is expected to continue by an average of 7 per cent per annum. The manufacturing sector is expected to lead the continued change towards an industrial economy. In line with the sectoral change in the economy, job opportunities will change accordingly. The largest share of new employment will come from the service and the manufacturing sectors. The manufacturing sector is projected to account for 36 per cent of the new jobs.

Accordingly, in the decade of the 90s competitiveness, productivity, innovativeness and capability in management of new technologies in Malaysia will be determined by the quality of its human resources. The development plan, therefore, envisages the development of a productive labour force with strong ethical and moral values and a commitment to excellence. It is also felt that increasing globalization and internationalization of the world economy will require the national economy to become more competitive and efficient with the increasing share and continued growth of the various manufacturing sectors of the economy, technical/vocational training have taken a role of utmost importance. The concern is both for quality and quantity of the manpower.

The economy of Japan continued to grow at a high rate of over 10 per cent per annum throughout the 80s led by strong private investment driven by technological innovations. The viewpoints for a desirable direction of the future economy of Japan underscore efficiency and growth of firms, enhancement of the social welfare of its people in terms of quality of life and harmonization with the international economy. Looking at the vacancy rate by occupation, workers are in short supply in such occupations as craftsmen, mining, manufacturing and construction, services, transport and communication, sales, etc. There is a mismatch between demand and supply, the latter being more in terms of clerical and related workers.

Until the first half of the 20th century, Korea had remained an agrarian society poorly endowed with natural resources. In subsequent years the successful implementation of the successive socio-economic development programmes, Korea is now among the leaders of the newly emerging industrialized countries. Korea is aiming at becoming a highly technological industrial society as well as a sound welfare state by the year 2000 by putting continued emphasis on the nurturing of its peoples potentialities, development of science and technology and enhancement of industrial competitive edge in the pursuit of internationalization of its economy and opening the economy to foreign intercourse. This has necessitated the development of high level skilled and technical manpower to prepare for the next stage of socio-economic development challenges. The vocational-technical education and training programmes are drastically expanded and reoriented at the upper secondary and post-secondary levels.

The examples given above are the characteristics of the region as a whole. The following broad features are perceived:

· gradual change over from agrarian to industrial economy;

· opening up of economy and recognition of the importance of global competitiveness;

· acceptance of rapid technological changes and their assimilation into the present industrial process;

· recognition of the role of TVET to develop appropriately skilled and technical manpower through the national educational and training systems and the role of secondary level education and its reorientation in this context.

Nearly all the countries of the region have received attention of planners and policy makers for reformulating or reorienting their TVE policies in the recent past. This has been done to conform to the changes in economic domains and the aspirations of the nations for economic development in the changing international and technological contexts.

In Iran, following the Islamic Revolution, a council for Fundamental Changes in Education was created in 1986. It was given the responsibility of revising the pre-college education system based on Islamic doctrine, as well as new social, economic and political needs. Amongst other things it recommended increasing the quantity and promoting the quality and status of technical and vocational education. The Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training (CTEVT) is the policy formulating and co-ordinating body for TVE in Nepal. CTVET has been established through an Act. Under the National Education System Plan (NESP), vocational education has been made compulsory. Promoting the learning of science and technology and skills needed for the development of country and providing a cadre of workers needed for development is one of the educational goals. The Urban Technical Schools produce manpower for bigger development projects such as road construction, hydroelectricity etc. The Rural Technical Schools supply the skilled manpower for rural development programme. The CTVET is concerned with further development and expansion of technical school programmes. The establishment of polytechnics is one of the activities being undertaken by the council. Polytechnics will offer courses in electronics, interior design and decoration, textile design, commercial art, computer science, architectural assistantship, food technology, pharmacy, office management and hotel management. The Eighth Five-Year Plan (1993-1997) marks a major shift in Nepal’s development of strategy towards trade and industrial sectors, foreign investment and employment.

In India, the National Policy on Education (1986, 1992) pronounces that education develops manpower for different levels of the economy. Accordingly, the policy on vocationalization states that systematic, well planned and rigorously implemented programmes of vocational education are meant to enhance individual employability to reduce mis-match between the demand and supply of skilled manpower, and to provide an alternative to those pursuing higher education without particular interest or purpose. It provides for generic vocational courses which highlight transferable skills which cut across various occupational fields as well as occupation specific - self and wage employment oriented curricula. The policy on technical education highlights the creation and maintenance of a technical manpower information system. It aims to promote continuing education to cover established as well as emerging technologies. Computer education is sought to cover the entire spectrum from school to management education. The use of distance learning and mass media have been recommended for a wider outreach to the population yet uncovered. With the same objectives in view, the policy stipulates the formulation of courses and programmes for the benefit of women, economically and socially weaker sections and the physically handicapped. Upgrading of curricula, phasing out obsolescence and introduction of new technology oriented courses are being actively pursued in respect of the TVE system. Appropriate bodies and authorities have been created to pursue and monitor the policy directives and their implementation. Some of these are the All India Council of Technical Education, Joint Council of Vocational Education, Central Institute of Vocational Education, state level systems for management of TVE and district level infrastructure for the same. The technical and vocational education systems are being revamped to meet the changes and challenges of the future. This encompasses curricula, infrastructure, delivery mechanism, managerial competence and other associated quality parameters. In India, financing of TVE is largely by the Central Government and marginally by the state governments with income from student tuition fees and private contributions being minimal.

Korea has been continuously facing the shortage of a skilled and industrial workforce and high level engineers and technologists even though there has been an over supply of college graduates, abundant unemployed and untrained senior high school graduates, and highly educated women who are underutilized. The quality of technical and vocational manpower has also been a matter of concern. The government has, therefore, come to the conclusion that the industrial technical manpower shortage has occurred due to wrong orientation of the upper secondary education programmes which are heavily biased towards college preparatory courses. As Korea is aiming to become a full-fledged developed country with the development of technology intensive industry and product and services, it needs to train and develop high level skilled technical manpower to prepare for the next stage of economic development challenges. This involves reorienting, restructuring and expanding the TVE system at upper secondary stage and provision of retraining and continuous education and training opportunities by strengthening in-company training. The educational finance in Korea consists of the central government budget, the regional or local government budget and the financial resources of private schools.

In Singapore TVE undergoes significant changes regularly to be relevant. It strives to remain in the forefront in the light of changes in education, technology, economy and aspirations of school-leavers and working adults. The emphasis on TVE continues in view of the national policy to gear the system staying abreast with the latest development in technology and to provide the high value added services. New plans and strategies have been formulated to further upgrade TVE in Singapore. Continuing education programmes are vigorously pursued in the Institute of Technical Education, polytechnics, universities and industry in order to keep the workforce up-to-date. TVE is entirely funded by the government which pays 100 per cent of the capital cost. The student fee accounts for 15 per cent of the running cost and non-governmental grants are utilized for specific projects and research. About 60 per cent of the budget is allocated to technical and vocational education.

In Fiji, the new economic development strategy, is involving a shift towards a more outward looking, export oriented approach that will lead to changes in economic structure. As the economy is opened and protection falls, all sectors which have survived under protection will face international competition. Deregulation will allow competitive areas to develop. Manufacturing is expected to be the major sector benefiting from trade reforms. It is estimated that 8,500 new workers would be required each year from 1993-1998 to meet the growing needs of the industry. This figure does not suggest the skill levels of the workforce. The Fiji National Training Council is the key agency which places the need for low and medium skilled level personnel at 4,600 and 2,500 high level workers and technicians. They would require new knowledge and skills to be imparted. The government has initiated many new policies and programmes for this purpose. These include upgrading of the Fiji Institute of Technology, establishment of two TVE centres and establishment of TVE facilities at existing secondary school sites.

Australia’s vocational education and training system is currently in a state of transition while major, far reaching reform processes are being implemented. A National Training Reform Agenda has been established which has brought together the Commonwealth, State and Territory Governments, employers and unions in collaborative action to improve the performance and status of vocational education. The realization of the need for reform stems largely from changing economic circumstances and a changing industrial relations environment. The impetus for the reform process was the recognition by key stakeholders in the Australian economic system that Australia needed new directions in training to improve its economic performance. All the stakeholders acknowledged the need to improve nation’s competitiveness through training. In 1989, the Federal Government issued a paper, improving Australia’s Training System which identified priorities for new national approach to training. A special Ministerial Conference involving the concerned ministers from Federal, State and Territory governments, made agreements establishing the foundation of the new system. It set the directions and priorities for training for the 1990s. Amongst other things, it included the introduction of a competency based training system, establishment of a National Training Board and implementation of a new method of recognizing migrant skills. The Australian National Training Authority was established in January 1994.

Australian approach to financing education and training aims to achieve a balance between public and private funding and to develop a culture where spending on education and training is seen by individuals and enterprises as an investment, not a cost. While the major financial responsibility for TAFE belongs to the States and Territories, increased Federal Government support since 1991 has enabled more Australians, particularly young people, to undertake vocational education and training.

Major Issues in TVE



There is very little information on issues in TVE in the set of country case studies which allows only a limited generalization.

Nepal has brought the issue of rising cost of the vocational, technical and polytechnic education and training in view of its low budget for TVE (1.7%) of the education sector budget in 1987-1988. It meets a great deal of its requirement from international donor agencies but is gradually lessening its dependence on them.

Malaysia has brought to the fore the fact that inspite of a very high percentage of governmental expenditure going to education (6.7%) its expenditure on TVE is very low (2%).

Many other countries have given more comprehensive coverage of issues and problems confronting them.

Fiji highlights its concern for more enterprise based TVET, expansion of both formal and non-formal TVET, greater emphasis on vocationalization, greater use of educational technology in TVET and greater and closer co-operation and coordination between public and private sectors in providing TVET.

Papua New Guinea expresses concern about poor access to and low enrolment in primary education in general and deprived nature of vocational education within the educational system. Low human resources and financing maintain a low public image.

Korea expresses satisfaction over the TVET system and programmes over the last 25 years, yet expresses the need to adjust and strengthen the system so as to increase its efficiency and effectiveness in order to better serve the people, industry and society. In this respect it intends to tap and utilize the enormous capital, technological and human resources that are available in industry for TVET through the development and establishment of close school-industry collaborative systems and mechanisms. It also seeks to improve guidance and counselling, creating proper environment for TVET, establishing a National Technical Qualification Testing System, encouraging private vocational technical training institutes, improvement in teacher education programmes and enhancement of managerial qualities and competencies for TVET.

Pakistan emphasizes curriculum development with futuristic vision, development of teaching/learning packages, efficient use of financial resources, better incentives for TVE faculty such as opportunities for higher studies, greater consolidation of facilities and the need for a legislation for provision of industrial training.

Bangladesh considers it necessary to have a thorough discussion with labour market representatives about the government’s role in vocational education and training and the future size, objectives and content of public vocational schools for the 90s. The major problems have included failure of institutions to achieve capacity targets, mismatch of training with the demand in labour market, lack of contact and co-operation between industry and institutes, unpredictable nature of demand in labour market, existence of skill training institutions under different agencies having little co-ordination and the urban oriented curricula.

India being the nearest neighbour of Pakistan and Bangladesh and sharing the same legacy of the Indian sub-continent shows similar issues and problems as well as broadly similar approaches to solve them. Teacher preparation, industry linkages, proper curricula and instructional materials, capacity utilization, general paucity of funds to meet its large requirement, flexible delivery and open learning of skills to meet its diversity, in all its meaning, are some of the major issues confronting India.