The Colombo Plan Staff College for Technician Education (CPSC) also dedicates itself primarily to enhancing the growth and development of the technician education systems in its member countries which are located in the Asia and Pacific region. Its programmes, projects, and activities are geared to provide the needed impetus for the professional development of senior level personnel involved in technician education development efforts.

UNESCO has launched an International Project on Technical and Vocational Education (UNEVOC) as of 1992 in co-operation with the Government of Germany, ILO, FAO, UNDP and NGOs interested in the reform of technical and vocational education. This project focuses on exchanging information, research and experiences on policy and programme issues in technical and vocational through a network of co-operating institutions.

In a spirit of co-operation between UNESCO and CPSC, under UNEVOC, an attempt is being made to compile and publish studies on the development of technical and vocational education in Member States in the form of TVE profiles of 21 countries. It is hoped that this series will serve as a handy reference information on TVE systems, staff development, technical co-operation and information networking. These studies have been possible because of the full co-operation to UNESCO PROAP and CPSC by all concerned in the Member States.

The opinions expressed in this study are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the position of UNESCO and CPSC in this regard. This profile on Myanmar was prepared by Dr. Gobporn Intrakamhaeng, Seconded Faculty Member by the Government of Thailand.

C.K. Basu 　　　　　　　　Victor Ordonez

Director, CPSC Director, UNESCO PROAP

Part I: Introductory Perspectives

The term 'Myanmar' embraces all nationalities of the main eight races. (For more details, see Table 5.1). The country was under the British rule for about one hundred years, having gained its independence in 1948 in the name of the 'Union of Burma'. In 1974, the state was redesignated 'the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma'. In 1988, the power of the state was protected by the Tatmadaw, and the official title of the state has been changed to 'the Union of Myanmar'.

1.2 Social Status

In 1992, the population was over 41 million with 21 million over 18 years old. Sixty-five per cent of the population lives in the rural area. The annual population growth rate is expected to be 1.88 per cent. The population is likely reach the 50 million mark by the year 2000. The female population still slightly higher than that of the male. Even then, the population density will be quite low. Given the resource endowment and comparatively low population density, the growth may in the long run stimulate development.

There are 135 recognized indigenous racial groups which classify in major ethnic groups. They are: Kachin, Kayah, Kayin, Chin, Bamar, Mon, Rakhine and Shan. The Union of Myanmar comprises seven states and seven divisions. They are:

States	Capital of States	Divisions	Capital of Divisions
Kachin	Myitkyina	Sagaing	Sagaing
Kayah	Loikow	Tamintharyi	Dawei
Kayin	Hpa-an	Bago	Bago
Chin	Hakha	Magway	Magway
Min	Mawlamyine	Mandalay	Mandalay
Rakhine	Sittme	Yangon	Yangon
Shane	Taunggyi	Ayeyarwady	Pathein

There are 14 main administrative entities. The states and divisions are subdivided currently into 319 townships. The Bamar is the largest ethnic group in population. The other ethnic groups live mainly in the states bearing their ethnic names with their own languages and dialects. Yangon is the capital city. The main religion is Buddhism (80 per cent). The rest are Christians, Muslims and Hindus. The currency is called Kyat.

1.3 Economic Status


The Union of Myanmar is predominantly an agricultural country with its population spread out in the rural areas. The heavily forested areas are the source of the world famous teak and other timber while rice produced in excess of local consumption is exported yearly. Oil and gas are also produced locally. Minerals such as lead, silver, tin and tungsten, antimony, copper and coal are found and extracted in many parts of the country. The Namtu-Bawdwin lead-silver-zinc mines is in fact one of the largest underground mines in Asia. Precious stones, especially jade and ruby are world famous. The Gem Emporium, held each year, brings many foreign buyers competing for the best purchase.

Sufficiency in food products and income earned by its forest products and minerals have sustained the country at a much higher level than other developing countries. The government is endeavouring to boost its agricultural and forest products by industrialization and modernization of its production methods.

An unrealistic exchange rate in addition of wiping out 70 per cent of currency in circulation without compensation in 1987 contributed to a negative economic growth-rate of - 11.4 per cent in fiscal year 1988-89 (Fareastern Economic Review, 1990) while the provisional figures indicate 1.5 per cent growth. However, the government has since reviewed the policy.

Since late 1988, the government has changed its economic policy from a centrally-planned to a market-oriented economy and taken a wide range of measures to liberalize trade and open up investment opportunities. The government has been striving hard to promote all round development of the national economy to improve provisions of food, clothing and shelter for the people so as to ameliorate their living standards. In this connection steps have been taken to ensure mass participation with maximum utilization of the faculties of people and to attract foreign investment on the basis of equality and mutual benefit.

The government has also envisaged such policy objectives as exploitation of abundant resources of the country with a view to cater to the needs of the nation in the first instance; exporting whatever surplus available; creation of new employment as the economic activities expand so that especially young people would have better job opportunities and privileges of learning, on-the-job training as well as technical training both at home and abroad; and economic and social development of various regions of the state along with expansion and improvement of transport and communication.

The foreign investment policy mainly seeks: to promote and expand exports; to exploit natural resources; to acquire high technology; and to support capital intensive production and services. Foreign investors who invest and operate on equitable principles would be given the right to enjoy appropriate economic benefits, to repatriate them, and to take their legitimate assets back home on closing of their business. They would also be given proper guarantee by the Government against nationalization of their business in operation. All these rights and privileges would be granted in the interest of the Union of Myanmar and its people.

Under the present economic policy of the State Law and Order Restoration Council, border trade is being revived and encouraged. The State has also permitted private entrepreneurs and co-operatives to undertake business and trading with foreign countries.

The major trading partners are: Southeast Asian Countries; Japan, P.R. of China, Pakistan; EEC; North America; Eastern Europe; Africa; and others. The major exports are: agricultural products; forest products; animal and marine products; minerals and gems; and others. The major imports are: consumer goods; raw materials and spares for inter-industry use; capital goods and unspecified commodities.

The major industries are: sugar, textiles, fertilizers, cement, oil and gas, and minerals and gems. The major agricultural products are: paddy, pulses and beans, cotton fisheries, and teak.

The statistics regarding economy is shown in Part Five, Tables 5.2, 5.3, 5.4 and 5.5.

1.4 Education Structure


The pre-second world war education system encouraged the youth of the country to pursue education which led to clerical and junior administrative positions in the civil service. Technicians and skilled workers required the male to work in industrial establishments and were mainly brought in from India. During the post-second world war, the Union of Myanmar found itself short of skilled workers, craftsmen, middle-level technicians and engineers. This caused the education system to reform and a Technical Education system was begun in line with the social economic development pattern of the country, integrating it into the main education system. But the 1950s, the Artisan Training Centres, a Technical Institute at Insein and a faculty of Engineering at the University of Rangoon were the only institutions under the Ministry of Education which were partially fulfilling the manpower needs of the country. Even then, teaching staff for the institutions had to be brought in from abroad on contract basis. Since then, the Department of Technical, Agricultural and Vocational Education has been responsible for the training of middle-level technicians, skilled and semi-skilled manpower of the country.

Education in the Union of Myanmar is mainly under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education. The educational policy is to provide basic education equated with livelihood and within the reach of all. Science is given precedence in higher education especially for those who have promising potentials and who are industrious. The literacy rate in 1992 was 80 per cent.

The educational structure is 5:4:2 with five years at the primary level, four years at the middle level and two years at the higher level. Diversification into the technical, agricultural and vocational stream was made to provide basic education at all levels see Diagram 1.1. There are seven departments under the Ministry of Education. They are:

1. Department of Basic Education which is responsible for general education at the primary, middle and high school levels, teacher training colleges and schools.

2. Department of Higher Education which is responsible for universities and colleges.

3. Department of Technical, Agricultural and Vocational Education which is responsible for technical training at the technical high schools and institutes; agricultural training at agricultural schools and institutes.

A technical teachers training institute and a vocational school which provide employable skills to students are also under this department.

4. Myanmar Examination Board which administers all Government Examinations.

5. Myanmar Education Research Bureau which is responsible for research related to teaching.

6. Department of Myanmar Language Commission.

7. Central Research Organization

1.5 Policy Concern


The Ministry of Education provides policy formulation and co-ordination through various councils formed under the Ministry. In addition, funding is also the main responsibility of the Ministry of Education though a small measure of contributions which is usually done by the respective communities.

Education in Myanmar enjoys a favourable environment as the people have traditionally given education the highest priority in their lives. Although monastic education played a major role in fostering basic literacy among people from all walks of life, it became less prominent under the British rule. Recently, however, the monastic education has been revitalized and is expected to play a complementary role especially at the primary level. In addition, the post independence governments have always invested heavily in education, leading to more learning and comparatively higher literacy.

Diagram 1.1 Education Structure (Union of Myanmar) 1992

Note: Teacher Training Colleges and Schools are not shown. Institute of Education accepts graduate teachers only.
Institute of Foreign Languages accepts only graduates who are in-service personnel; some overseas scholars are accepted to study in Myanmar.

The most noteworthy step was the formation of the Myanmar Naing Ngan Education Committee in 1991 to co-ordinate educational policies and plans thereby enhancing the existing environment for education.

Realizing and attaching much importance to education in nurturing and moulding well-rounded and useful citizens, the development of education activities has consistently received special emphasis. Accordingly, the development plans formulated and implemented have invariably accorded priority to the development of human resources in general and education in particular. In this context, the successive governments on their part have placed special emphasis on the promotion of education by allocating as much recurrent and development expenditures as its financial resources permit in the development plans.

As a result of such concerted efforts by the State and the active and extensive community participation in the development of educational activities, Myanmar's educational attainments is fairly satisfactory and is considered on par or in a better position than some other countries of a comparable economic development.

In assessing Myanmar's attainments in the education sector, one should take into account not only the role played by the government in terms of expenditure incurred and the infrastructure and support facilities given but also the role played by the communities. Private individuals and communities play active and significant roles in promoting every aspect of education by contributing money, material and labour. Monasteries traditionally play a pivotal role in imparting basic education to a large sector of the rural populace in informal education situations and nation-wide literacy campaigns are carried out by tens of thousands of individuals on a voluntary basis.

Due to consistent and steadfast commitment of the government for education, relevant indicators of educational development in particular and human development index in general indicate improvement. The human development index of Myanmar stood at 0.437 in 1991 indicating that it ranks in the middle lower income level despite the fact that in terms of purely economic development it ranks in the less developing group of countries. The recurring expenditure and capital investment incurred by the state for education increased from K 841.4 million and K 215.7 million in 1985-86 to K 3586.9 million and K 1247.9 million in 1992-93, respectively, indicating increases of 4.3 times in current budget and 5.8 times in capital investment. Supplemented by equally significant increases by the private sector, the record of achievement in education is fairly satisfactory. However, much remains to be done to improve education in qualitative terms. As a result of these efforts there is, virtually a school in every village and it may well be that the EFA 2000 goals of universal primary education are within reach. Access to education for every child, even those living in far-flung border areas has been greatly increased.

In recent years seminars, workshops, consultations, studies and research have been held to discuss ways and means for improving, strengthening and updating various levels of education in order to meet the needs of the changing economic and political situation. The insights gained from such activities will be incorporated and integrated in the development plans for the education sector. Thus, a blueprint for the education sector is being charted and formulated. A notable milestone is the completion of the Education Sector Study which was undertaken by the Ministry of Education in collaboration with UNESCO and UNDP. A number of projects which could be incorporated in development plans for the education sector have been identified and technically and economically appraised. The state has continuingly re-affirmed its commitment of according priority to education sector in its development plans.

1.6 Human Resource Development


People are always regarded as the wealth of a nation. Effective development of human resources, therefore, is a prerequisite for economic growth and improved quality of Life. The positive contribution of education of the people most particularly of the labour force to economic achievement and social welfare has been proven beyond any doubt. Hence, investment in education results in a more educated labour force which, in turn, is capable of increasing an economy's output of goods and services. As mentioned recently, Myanmar adopted a liberalized economic policy in the form of market-oriented economic system generating a host of very active economic enterprises. The demands for trained manpower are increased dramatically both in quantitative and qualitative terms. However, Myanmar, in many ways, still remains, predominantly an agricultural society. With more mechanized farming and systematic planning for better production of crops and vegetables, increased labour absorption is expected in the industrial and services sectors which will eventually require trained personnel in the high technology areas to achieve economic modernization of the country.

These situations have created an environment in which planning for education requires the right balance between training for the manufacturing sector and the service sector. The estimated manpower in the recent years also shows that about 65 per cent of the labour force is unskilled and 11 per cent is semi-skilled (Khin Maung Win, 1993) indicating a strong demand for in-service training and retraining as well as for more widespread and effective pre-service training. In reaching these requirements, Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) is a specialized form of human resource development that enable individuals to develop skills needed for productive employment in specific occupations. Thus, it is envisaged that TVET will continue to play a major role in the development of human resources for the country's economic growth and social welfare.

Part II: Training Modes and Systems

2.1 Organizational Structure

Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) system in Myanmar has opened opportunities for diversification into TVET at three points viz the end of primary level, the end of middle level and on completion of high school level (see Diagram 2.1). The Pre-technical and vocational education is offered to students from grades 5 to 8 since 1974/75 in 50 selected Basic Education High Schools. In 1977/78, 70 Basic Education Middle Schools are selected and production cum vocational courses were offered to all students in the same grade as mentioned above. The objective was to improve employability (self or otherwise) of the young students and to foster right attitudes towards production and hands-on income-generating skills. In reality, it was found out that the young students from rural areas and those employed in urban information sector usually dropped out of school early for unpaid work in family enterprises while most parents and students from urban areas regarded pre-vocational or skilled employment as of low status and usually continued on to higher education.

The TVET school-based training is under the Department of Technical, Agricultural and Vocational Education (DTAVE) and is responsible for training of middle-rung technicians, skilled and semi-skilled workers. The principal objectives are: training and formulation of programmes to link teaching with on-the-job experience; setting priorities for occupations and skills which will be most useful in practical fields; organizing training programmes in vocational subjects for students who dropped out at various levels of the formal education system; to train and nurture skilled technicians and experts who are imbued with a sense of consciousness and conviction to cherish the state. The DTAVE organizational structure is shown in Diagram 2.2.

The DTAVE is chaired by the Minister for Education. It has a membership of seventeen, and a secretariat of three. The membership consists of representatives of relevant Ministries. The council is the decision-making body for TVET under the Ministry of Education. Under the council, there are three Educational Committees: Educational Committee; Curriculum Committee; and Examination Committee (see Diagram 2.3). These committees are responsible for the design, development, implementation and monitoring of the progress in the three distinct types of education offered by DTAVE. They are: Technical Education; Agricultural Education; and Vocational Education. At the institutional level, Governing Bodies are chaired by the Principals. The members consist of teachers and officers, representatives from industries and enterprises, and the respective communities. The Governing Body members are responsible for the smooth operation of the schools and institutes.

Source: DTAVE 1990

Source: DTAVE 1990

Source: DTAVE 1990

The industrial/enterprise-based Training is the retraining for changing technologies emerging in the industries. Many industries and enterprises have their own training wings and programmes to meet the special requirement of affiliated factories and workshops.

The training of skilled workers and the initial and further training of employed persons are usually undertaken by the departments, boards and corporations of relevant Ministries. Several Ministries have set up: Group Training Centres for workers; Formal In-Plant Service (Enterprise-Based); and Informal on-the-job training. One aspect of industrial/enterprise-based training in Myanmar is the 3-months on-the-job training undertaken by all students of the technical institutes and agriculture institutes after they have appeared for the final examinations in their final years of schooling. All the Ministries co-operate with the Ministry of Education in implementing the yearly programme and students are placed in industries and enterprises all over the country. Financial support in the form of monthly allowances is provided to all students by the industries and enterprises of the Ministries concerned (see Table 5.11), sample of a Vocational Training Centre Organization under the Department of Labour as shown on Diagram 2.4.

2.2 Role of TVET

Technical and Vocational Education and Training was carried out in 1950 under the Ministry of Education with two Artisan Training Centers, a Government Technical Institute and a Faculty of Engineering at the University of Rangoon (Yangon). In the area of agricultural education, there were only three institutions viz, one Agricultural High School, one State Agricultural Institute and one Agricultural College. But in early 1960, one Technical High School and one more Government Technical Institute were established. Some vocational schools were also established in the late 1960.

The DTAVE was formally established under the Ministry of Education in 1972. Since then DTAVE has been entrusted with training of middle level technicians, skilled and semi-skilled tradesmen. By 1973, there were altogether 30 institutions providing technical, agricultural and vocational education and training. This number increased to 52 by 1983 and to 66 by 1992. (See Table 5-6).

Apart from the regular full time courses, DTAVE also operates 11 part-time evening courses and one mobile training unit (see Tables 5.7 and 5.8). DTAVE is not only concerned with the training of technicians, skilled and semi-skilled tradesmen, who eventually will be participating in the production activities, but also with the training of school dropouts and illiterate youth to become employable.

Under the Department of Higher Education (DHE), there are only two tertiary level institutions for technical education, namely, the Yangon Institute of Technology (YIT) and the Mandalay Institute of Technology (MIT), which provide high level technician manpower to the public and the private sectors.

Source: ILO, 1987

In addition to the Ministry of Education, other Ministries have also set-up their own training wings to cater to the needs of affiliated industries and enterprises. It is estimated that some 140 training institutions exist, operated by various ministries (see Table 5.11).

At present, the world is witnessing dramatic changes in industry and economy brought about by rapid advances in science and technology. As a result, there is a corresponding transformation in the occupational patterns and job qualifications. Although Myanmar, being a developing country, is not yet faced with such emerging challenges, plans are under way to formulate policies, guidelines and strategies not only to address the human resource requirements of the future trends in industry and economy but also to fulfill the current needs by:

1. developing teaching quality and effectiveness of teachers;

2. introducing competency-based curricula for TAVE courses and creating a Curriculum Development Centre;

3. introducing modular training for the informal sector for improved productivity and safety of small enterprises and workers;

4. establishing a Vocational Training Authority for rationalized development of the TAVE system for the entire country;

5. reorganizing TAVE system in DTAVE for more effective planning and implementation of human resource development programmes;

6. introducing entrepreneurial training to promote self-employment;

7. providing specialized and short term courses in agriculture;

8. providing opportunities for retraining;

9. establishing more training institutions;

10. promoting high technology research and development.

The Ministry of Education with its different types of training institutions plays a very active role in this endeavour. Equally active in this task are other ministries, departments and enterprises both in the public and private sectors with each of them implementing training programmes according to their needs. In the long run, however, concerted effort led by a national body, with legal status and resources, will be required to develop a well trained and flexible labour force to meet the demands of the emerging technologies in all productive, administrative and service areas. Thus, it is envisaged that technical and vocational education and training will continue to be given a high priority in Myanmar for sustainable human resource development.

Part III: Planning and Management of TVET


3.1 Planning of TVET


The planning of Technical and Vocational Education is under the Department of Technical, Agricultural and Vocational Education, implementing policies and guidelines laid down by the Ministry of Education. All plans for the expansion of schools and institutes, staff development, financial, facilities (building; equipment and tools); and teaching aids, and work procedures are made by DTAVE Council. The training for employment is planned by the organization and the Ministries involved.

3.2 Student Planning


Entrance examinations are held for students who wish to enter the Government Technical Institute, the State Agricultural Institute, Engineering Technology Evening Classes and the Commercial Schools. Technical High School students are selected according to their grades obtained in the Middle School Final Examination. There are no entrance examinations for students who wish to enter the Agricultural High Schools. Sixty percent of all students studying in the schools and institutes under DTAVE are awarded stipends. Housing in the form of hostels is also provided. The number of students is shown in Table 5.8.


3.3 Examination System

Schools and institutes under DTAVE conduct informal and half-yearly examinations on their own but the final and promotion examinations are held under the direct control of Examination Committees of DTAVE.

3.4 Continuing Education


Prior to 1992, students were accorded the opportunity to continue education at higher levels but this was suspended from 1982 to 1989. Starting from the 1990-91 academic year, continuing education to higher levels was allowed only for those who were qualified to enter into the higher institutions.

Graduates of technical schools and institutes are popular both in this country and abroad and employment is assured for them in the departments and enterprises of the industrial and economic sector.

3.5 Staff Planning


Staff members are recruited through advertisement in local newspapers. Written examinations and personnel interviews are conducted as part of the selection procedures. Schools and institutes under DTAVE are all government agencies and remuneration in the form of salaries and allowances are all provided according to the scales laid down by the Ministry of Education. The number of TVET staff is shown in Table 5.8.

Pre-service training was previously required for teaching staff of the schools and institutes under DTAVE. Before 1986, due to the rapid expansion of DTAVE and the increase in the number of schools and institutes, young teachers with no teaching experience were initially recruited. However, since 1986, special in-service training programmes have been offered by the Technical Teachers Training Institute under DTAVE. Teachers are also sent abroad for special trade and teacher training.

Promotion and transfer are on the basis of a time scale laid down by the Ministry of Education on the recommendations of the principals and authorities based on staff performances in their respective schools and institutes. Retirement is either at sixty years of age or after thirty years of service and is the same for all government employees in the country. Pensions are provided to all government employees.

3.6 Facilities Planning


For new schools and institutes, planning for estates and buildings are carried out by the authorities in DTAVE. Further expansion and maintenance requirements of existing schools and institutes are planned by the principal and staff of the schools and institutes concerned and submitted to DTAVE for approval and necessary budget allocation.

Libraries are provided at all schools and institutes under DTAVE. Books and other resources for each school are initially provided by DTAVE and annual funds are allocated for the purchase of periodicals and books as required by teachers and students of the institutes.

Equipment and tools involving foreign exchange currency is procured by the Ministry of Education either through government funds or through aids and grants provided by friendly countries and international organizations. Funds are provided for each school and institute to locally purchase equipment available in the country.

Furniture is provided by DTAVE for schools and institutes. In many cases, schools and institutes which have facilities and equipment make their own furniture and also offer help to other schools and institutes.

Teaching materials and aids are acquired through government funds or through grants from friendly countries and international organizations. Funds are allocated to schools and institutes for teaching materials and aids produced by teaching staff or for purchasing locally produced materials.

Printing material production is usually done on a contract basis with presses available in the locality. Assistance from the University Press is sought for when the need arises. The DTAVE and its schools and institutes do not possess such printing facilities. However, plans have been drawn up for setting such facilities at DTAVE and some selected schools. The DTAVE plans to provide all schools and institutes with at least one vehicle. In 1990, most of the schools had at least one.

3.7 Financial Planning


In Myanmar, the Government is the main funding agency for all educational institutions including those under DTAVE. In addition to free tuition for all students, the Government also provides monthly stipends (Ks. 187.50/Ks. 300 depending upon the residency) to 60 per cent of students in technical institutions and 75 per cent of students in agricultural institutions.

Total budget allotment to DTAVE for the fiscal year 1992-93 Kyats 187.72 million compared to Kyats 63.28 million for FT 1987-88, indicating strong commitment by the Government to promote technical, agricultural and vocational education and training as an integral part of human resource development in Myanmar.

The Government's financial contribution to education has increased from 1.7 per cent of GDP in 1981-82 to 2.8 per cent of GDP in 1990-91. The education expenditure was 19.4 per cent of Government's total expenditure in FY 1990-91.

8 Grants and Loans

The Ministry of Education has received grants and loans from friendly countries and international agencies for institutions under DTAVE. DTAVE is at present implementing three externally funded projects. These are:

· OPEC LOAN AGREEMENT 505P - This loan of US$ 7.3 million is for refurbishing 21 institutions under DTAVE

· Myanmar/UNDP Project MYA/90/006 is for Strengthening of Technical, Agricultural and Vocational Education. This is a grant by UNDP and is complementary to the above project and specifically provided for fellowship training and consultancy services. UNDP input is US$ 863,789 and the Government's contribution is Kyats 4,437,000.

· Skills-based literacy for out-of-school children and youth project is a joint effort by DTAVE and UNICEF. UNICEF has already provided funds amounting to US$ 67,000 for stationery and office equipment.

3.9 Monitoring, Control and Evaluation


There are no special sections or organization within DTAVE responsible for monitoring, control and evaluation. DTAVE is fed with data and facts by the principals of the schools and institutes and performs its decision-making duties only when the need arises. The authorities of DTAVE with the assistance of the principals of the schools and institutes perform these duties.

3.10 Management of TVET


1. Vocational and Technical Education

The Ministry of Education is primarily responsible for vocational and technical education of young persons, before or after completion of higher-level basic education. The activities of the Department of Technical and Vocational Education are based on the 1974 Vocational and Technical Education Act and guided by the Vocational and Technical Education Committee of the Ministry. (1981 Yearbook of Vocational and Technical Training in Asia and the Pacific, ILO).

There are ten types of institutes under the DTAVE which offer three kinds of regular full time study courses. They are tertiary level, secondary level and short course courses (see Table 5.6). Details of courses of study in each type of institute/school are shown in Table 5.7. The Government Technical Institute (GTI) and the State Agricultural Institute (SAI) offer Diploma-Level courses and the other eight institutions/schools offer the Certificate level courses.

DTAVE also offers part-time courses. There are two types of part-time courses: the Evening Trade Classes of 5 months duration conducted three hours a day, five days a week; and the Engineering Technology Evening Classes (ETEC). The ETEC is a level between THS and GTI. This course is intended for the employees of state organization (in technical position) who want to upgrade their theoretical knowledge in the respective engineering technologies. The course duration is three years at two hours per day, five days a week. For the courses offered in these two classes, please see Table 5.7. There are other relevant training activities for countrywide application. They are Mobile Vocational Training Team and Skill-based Literacy Training programme to the people in the township. The duration of training varies from one to three months. The modular approach has been practised since 1992. For the Skill-based Literacy Training Programme with the technical assistance of UNICEF, DTAVE is planning to start this programme using the same modules of Mobile Vocational Training. The modules also have Literacy and Facts for Life component incorporated in it. By the end of June 1992, fourteen teachers' modules and seven learners' modules had been prepared and processed. The training is based in the respective institutions where facilities for skill training are readily accessible.

The training of technologists and professionals leading to a degree is undertaken by the universities and institutes which are under the Department of Higher Education.

2. Training of Skilled Workers

The Labour Ministry's Department of Labour established a National Vocational Training Centre to train key personnel such as training officers, supervisor-trainers and craft instructors required for carrying out training programmes in industry. The Centre also serves as the secretariat of the Vocational Training Committee and at the same time provides consultancy and other services to the industry concerning implementation of training programmes for workers.

An objective of the National Training Programme is to establish an occupational skills standards and set up a system of trade testing and certification for skilled workers. This is at the initial stage. The activity is being undertaken in co-operation with the relevant industries under the guidance of the National Vocational Training Committee.

There are two vocational training centres under the Ministry of Labour. These centres conduct nine types of training courses as follows:

a. Training Officers' course. This course is designed for personnel who will organize, implement and manage various types of training courses for workers in industry. The course lasts six weeks and two such courses are held each financial year.

b. Supervisor-instructor course. This course is for personnel who will train various grades of foremen and supervisors in industry. The course lasts six weeks and four such courses are held each financial year.

c. Productivity Improvement course. This course is aimed at higher-level supervisors and mid-level managers, who could directly influence the organization of work and improvement of methods, and thus help in raising labour productivity. The course lasts six weeks.

d. General Instructional Technique course. This course is designed to impart training and teaching methodology to training personnel and instructors from various organizations. The course lasts three weeks.

e. Trade Skill Testing Methodology course. This course is for personnel, administrators and instructors from training centres who conduct theoretical and practical tests for workers, either for promoting or for assessing their skills and knowledge at the end of training. The course lasts three weeks.

f. Trade Instructor courses. These courses are designed to train instructors who will train apprentices and skilled workers in their trade specializations. The courses take four to six months, depending on the trade, and includes theoretical and practical instruction for upgrading the knowledge and skills of would-be instructors. The important part of the course is training methodology and the practice of the various methods of instruction. At present, four trade courses are being held: Machinist Trade Instructor; Welding Trade Instructor; Automotive Mechanic Trade Instructor; and Electrical Trade Instructor.

g. Conducting tailor-made courses at the request of the enterprises.

h. Providing advisory services in pedagogy to enterprises.

i. Providing part-time lectures.

3.11 Curriculum Development


All activities relating to curriculum development are initiated by the staff of the schools and institutions concerned. Proposals for change are sent to DTAVE authorities. The DTAVE with its comments and recommendations forwards the proposal to the respective Curriculum Committees. The Curriculum Committees after careful scrutiny and discussion put up the proposals through respective Education Committees (see Diagram 2.4) to DTAVE and Technical, Agriculture and Vocational Education Council for discussion and final approval.

In 1990, the schools and institutions under DTAVE were in the process of changing the curriculum from the old formal system to the competency-based modular approach. In 1992, they were on the try-out process. The Technical Teachers Training Institute has assisted the staff of vocational schools in developing their curricular offerings. The effectiveness of the new curricula are carefully evaluated and revised to meet the specific needs of the students. The curricula of all the courses of schools and institutes are updated as the need arises to comply with the changes in the technologies.

Part IV: Manpower Development

4.1 Entrepreneurship


The manpower development plan puts great importance on middle manpower of technician, skilled workers and semi-skilled workers. The priorities are dependent on occupations and skills which are most useful in practical fields. Formal and informal education are provided to develop the manpower. This policy does not only serve the labour market but also emphasizes the need to raise the standard of living of citizens of the country. The Ministries of Mines and Energy; Agricultural and Forests; Transport and Communication; Trade, etc., together with their departments and enterprises are all endeavoring to increase production in their respective fields. In-service training and upgrading are provided to develop employees for quality work and raise the standard of living. The Ministry of Trade has allowed the registration of 168 companies, twenty-eight foreign companies and 362 partnerships. The other ministries also established the joint-ventures and provided more employment opportunities for graduates of the schools and institutes under DTAVE. The successful trainees of commercials schools also easily find employment in co-operatives, industrial establishments, banks and economic enterprises of the country.

The Ministry of Co-operatives encourages young graduates to form cooperatives and funds are provided by the Ministry in the form of soft loans for the procurement of machinery and materials. Construction co-operatives and metal work co-operatives have already been established and are profitably operating under the management and direct control of the young graduates themselves.

Since a very large number of graduates of technical and agricultural schools find employment largely in industrial and economic enterprises owned by the government, there is a plan on strategies for integrating entrepreneurship training into the curricula at present. The objectives of DTAVE include providing skills and knowledge not only for employment by industrial and economic enterprises but also to enable young graduates to stand on their feet as self-employed individuals. No law exists to force small scale enterprises to employ trained graduates of the schools and institutes. However, special in-service training programmes have been offered in 1986 by the Technical Teachers Training Institute. Teachers are also sent abroad for special trade and entrepreneurship training.

The future plans for entrepreneurship training in polytechnics and secondary level institutions are as follows:- (Daw Sandar Myint: 1992).

1. Introduce modern mechanization in TAVE teaching areas.

2. Establish new technical and agricultural institutes and high schools.

3. Use more teaching aids and demonstration plots.

4. Introduce new technologies and practices in entrepreneurship training.

5. Pave the way for the introduction of practical skills among agricultural, technical and vocational students.

6. Arrange excursions to the small scale enterprises and other related areas.

Statistics on manpower are shown in Part V Table 5.14.

4.2 Women in TVET Development


The constitution of the Union of Myanmar, article 22 states that there are no differences between a male and a female in case of individual rights and of responsibilities to the state. Equal opportunity under article 148 also states that male and female shall have the right to freely undertake any vocation permitted by the state.

There are no special woman technician development programmes at present in the country. In-service training and on-the-job training schemes for technicians and skilled and semi-skilled workers are regularly conducted by the departments and enterprises concerned with the objectives of developing or upgrading their skills and knowledge. As stated earlier, male and female technicians participate together in these training schemes and are rated according to their abilities.

In the work situation, women usually join industries as sub-assistant engineers, draft persons, laboratory technicians, etc. With regard to employment opportunities, there is no discrimination between the sexes but where fieldwork requiring endurance, physical strength, stamina and very close contact with men are involved, employers still hesitate to employ women technicians. Equal pay and allowances for work of equal quality have always been guaranteed. Equal opportunities for advancement also exist and many women hold high positions in industry. Women in state enterprises also enjoy special medical care and treatment during pregnancy and childbirth and are entitled to three months maternity leave with full pay in addition to other kinds of leave enjoyed by men. Since there is no discrimination in law and practice, problems regarding the status of women technicians are virtually non-existent. Old traditions and attitudes regarding women at work-sites sometimes appear to create some problems but women technicians are enjoying the respect and esteem of their peers and employers.

For education and training, education at all levels is open to both males and females. The right of all citizens to education is guaranteed by the constitution. There is no discrimination on the basis of sex from enrolling in any general vocational and technical institution. It depends only on one's abilities to attain them.

Specific data regarding women technician is not available. However, there are some statistics regarding women in Part V Table 5-13 and 5-14.

4.3 International Aid and Assistance


In 1993 to 2000, there are three programmes that will be formulated for further planning under UNDP/UNESCO co-financing which provided for arrangement of teacher training in country and abroad. These projects will cover 21 schools and institutes out of DTAVE. The projects in Programmes 1 are Developing Teaching Quality and Effectiveness of Teachers Project (1994-1996); Curriculum Development and Reform Project (1994-2000); and Modular Training for the Informal Sector Project (1994-1996).

Programme 2 is about Strengthening Management and Organization of Technical, Agricultural and Vocational Education Programme. There are two projects under this programme namely: Establishment of Vocational Training Authority Project (1994-1996); and Reorganization of Technical Agricultural and Vocational Education in DTAVE Project (1995-1997).

Programme 3 deals with Improving Agricultural Education and Training Programme. The two projects under this programme are: Introducing Entrepreneurial Training Project (1994-1997); and Provision of Specialized and Short Term Courses in Agricultural Institute Project (1995-1997). More details are seen in Table 5.15.

4.4 Co-operation between Institution and Public/Private Sector


In 1991, the Myanmar Naing Ngan Education Committee was formed to develop and implement an education system which is in harmony with the culture, tradition, social and economic system and which will support and strengthen the development of the country. This is the highest body responsible for policy formulation and planning of education and is chaired by the Honourable Secretary 1 of the State Law and Order Restoration Council. The Minister for Education is the Vice-Chairman of the Committee. Members include the Chief Justice, the Attorney General, the Auditor General, the Chairman of the Public Service Commission and Heads of Departments under various ministries.

In Myanmar, the public sector has been the dominant employer for many years. The training institutions' effort to cater to the public sector's needs has not been very satisfactory, because of lack of strong and effective co-operation between education and industries. The linkage between the training institutions and the private sector has also been rather weak. Now that the private sector is rapidly growing with the inception of the market-oriented economy, stronger collaboration between the training institutions and the public as well as the private sectors becomes essential. The Myanmar Naing Ngan Education Committee and the Technical, Agricultural and Vocational Education Council assisted by various committees under DTAVE are now making serious efforts to make sure that such collaboration is initiated and executed at all levels.

Part V: Statistics

The statistics in this part is concerned with the social and economic aspect, the educational system, TVET programmes, manpower in the workforce and Myanmar TVET staff upgrading by CPSC.

Table 5.1 Race, Racial Groups and Population of the Union of Myanmar

No.	Races	Racial Group	Population (1,000)
1	Kachin	12	450
2	Kayah	9	100
3	Kayin	11	2,630
4	Chin	53	730
5	Bamar	9	28,250
6	Mon	1	1,060
7	Rakhine	7	1,730
8	Shan	33	2,240
9	Mixed Foreign and Myanmar	-	1,930
10	All foreigners	-	2,760
	Total Population		41,880

Source: The Immigration and Manpower Department 1992.

Table 5.2 Economic Statistics (Unit: Kyats)

Economic Status		1988/89	1990/91
1. Gross Domestic Product at current prices (million) GDP growth rate		K.71,059 -11.4	K.138,100 5.6
2. Per Capita GDP		K.1,806	K.3,385
3. Percentage GDP by Industrial Sector
	3.1 Agriculture, forestry and fishing	50.0	59.3
	3.2 Mining and quarrying	0.6	0.6
	3.3 Manufacturing	8.9	8.4
	3.4 Electricity, gas and water	0.6	0.3
	3.5 Construction	1.4	2.1
	3.6 Wholesale and retail trade	22.5	23.2
	3.7 Transport and communication	3.9	2.9
	3.8 Finance	3.0	0.2
	3.9 Social and Service	9.1	3.0
4. Exchange rate Kt per $		6.39	6.34
5. Consumer price inflation %		16.0	17.6
6. Foreign trade (million)
	6.1 Exports	K.2,007	K.3,608
	6.2 Imports	K.3,464	K.7,354

Source:

1. Ministry of Foreign Affairs 1990
2. The Economist Intelligence Unit 1992
3. United Nation 1990

Table 5.3 Persons in the Labour Force, 1982-1990

Year	Total	Employed	Unemployed	Percentage of Unemployment
1982	14,446,380	13,790,000	656,380	4.54
1983	14,615,380	14,185,000	430,380	2.94
1984	14,937,970	14,497,000	440,970	2.95
1985	15,129,950	14,792,000	337,950	2.23
1986	15,484,420	15,130,000	354,420	2.29
1987	15,836,420	15,505,000	331,420	2.09
1988	16,125,650	15,813,000	312,650	1.94
1989	16,571,810	16,086,000	485,810	2.93
1990	15,776,250	15,221,000	555,250	3.52

Source: ILO 1992 Yearbook.

Table 5.4 Active Persons in the Labour Force by Industry

Industry	1982	1985	1989	1990	1991
Total	13,790	14,792	16,036	15,221	15,737
Agriculture	9,205	9,772	10,452	10,614	10,867
Mining and Quarrying	71	85	87	78	79
Manufacturing	1,104	1,234	1,384	1,137	1,132
Electricity, gas, water	16	16	17	17	17
Construction	208	240	270	174	188
Trade restaurants and hotels	1,310	1,444	1,622	1,405	1,396
Transport storage communication	458	488	529	385	388
Financing, Business service	818	885	1,007	956	1,205
Community Social Service	600	628	668	455	465
Activities not adequately defined	-	-	-	-	-

Note: Fiscal Year = July of proceeding year to June of current year.

Source: ILO 1992 Yearbook; United Nations 1992 Statistical Yearbook.

Table 5.5 Population by Occupation, 1973 and 1983

Occupation	1973 Percentage	1983 Percentage	Annual Growth Rate
Professional Technical and Related Workers	2.23	2.42	3.47
Administrative and Managerial Workers	0.38	0.39	2.94
Clerical and Related Workers	2.31	2.25	2.38
Sales Workers	8.48	9.40	3.68
Service Workers	1.72	1.69	2.51
Farmers, Foresters, Fishermen and Hunters	63.28	64.22	2.81
Production and Transport Operators and Labourers	20.68	17.93	1.23
Unclassified	0.92	1.70	8.77

Source: Khin Maung Win (1993), Sustainable Human Development.

Table 5.6 Type of TVET Institution in DTAVE

Type	Duration	No. of Institution	Level
1. Government Technical Institute (GTI)	3 years	11	Tertiary
2. State Agricultural Institute (SAI)	3 years	7	Tertiary
3. Technical High School (THS)	2.5 years	17	Secondary
4. Agricultural High School (AHS)	2 years	10	Secondary
5. Commercial School (CS)	9 months (6+3 OJT)	3	short
6. Machinery Repair and Maintenance School (MRMS)	6 months	2	short
7. Handicraft School (HS)	3 months	11	short
8. School of Home Sciences	3 months (Modular)	6	short
9. School of Fisheries	9 months (6+3 OJT)	2	short
10. Technical Teachers Training Institute (TTTI)	4 months	1	short
Total		70

Source: DTAVE 1992.

Table 5.7 Fields of Study and Training

Institutes/Schools	Course of Study
1. Government Technical Institute (GTI)	Civil Engineering; Electrical Engineering (Power); Electronics and Communications Engineering; Mechanical Engineering (Power); Mechanical Engineering (Machine Tools); Mining Engineering; Plastic and Rubber Technology; Food and Chemical Technology [3 years course]
2. State Agricultural Institute (SAI)	Agriculture; Animal Husbandry [3 years course]
3. Technical High School (THS)	Radio Mechanics; Electrical Trade; Welding Trade; Machining; Vehicle Mechanics; Building Construction; Planning; Fitting [2.5 years course]
4. Agricultural High School (AHS)	Agriculture [ 2 years course]
5. Commercial Schools (CS)	Accountancy; Office Work; Myanmar Shorthand and Typing; English/Myanmar Typing [6 months in school + 3 months on-the-job training]
6. Machinery Repair and Maintenance Schools (MRMS)	Home Electrical Appliances Repair; Sewing Machine Repair and Key Making; Watch Repair; Office Machine Repair; General Machine Repair; Bicycle Repair [6 months course]
7. Handicraft Schools (HS)	Cane/Bamboo Working; Leather Working; Book Binding; Wood Working; Metal Spinning; Hair Dressing; General Tailoring; Bicycle Repair; Home Electrical Appliances Repair; Office Machine Repair; Sheet Metal Working [6 months course]
8. School of Home Science	Women's and Children's Wear; Hand Knitting and Women's Wear; Men's Shirt and Jacket; General Knitting and Stitching; Bodice and Brassiere; Fruit Preservation; Myanmar Cuisine; Bakery; Myanmar Cuisine and Food Preservation [3 months course] Western Style Dress Tailoring [6 months course]
9. School of Fisheries	Fish and Prawn Breeding; Fishing Net Repair; Fish Capturing; Processing [9 months course]
10. Technical Teachers Training Institute (TTTI)	English; Teaching Methods; Student Evaluation; Teaching Aids; Workshop Organization and Management; In-Service Training for Teachers from all Schools and Institutes under DTAVE [4 months course]

Table 5.8 Part-Time Courses and Relevant Activities

Type of Classes	Courses Offering
Evening Trade Classes	Machining; Electrical Wiring; Diesel Mechanics; Motor Vehicle Mechanics; Fitting, Welding; Plumbing, Masonry; Blacksmith; Carpentry; Building; Painting [5 months course, 3 hours per day]
Engineering Technology Evening Classes (ETEC)	Civil Engineering Technology; Mechanical Engineering Technology; Electrical Engineering Technology [3 years course, 2 hours per day]
Mobile Vocational Training Team (MVTT)	Sewing; Needleworks; Knitting; Myanmar Cuisine; Bakery; Carpentry, Hairdressing; Repair and Maintenance of Home Electrical Appliances [1-3 months by using Modular]
Skill-based Literacy Training Programme	the same course as in MVTT [1 month]

Source: DTAVE 1992.

Table 5.9 Number of Schools, Students and Teaching Staff, DTAVE FY 1989-90

Institutions	1985-86			1987-88			1989-90
	1	2	3	1	2	3	1	2	3
Government Technical Institute (GTI)	8	310	4,819	10	470	6,493	10	535	Inst closed
State Agricultural Institute (SAI)	6	140	907	7	176	695	7	164	Inst closed
Technical High School (THS)	13	374	4,286	12	366	4,446	13	404	4,287
Agricultural High School (AHS)	9	95	608	9	92	284	9	91	285
Commercial School (CS)	3	22	436	3	21	427	3	24	150*
Machinery Repair and Maintenance School (MRMS)	2	16	172