The Colombo Plan Staff College for Technician Education (CPSC) also dedicates itself primarily to enhancing the growth and development of the technician education systems in its member countries which are located in the Asia and Pacific region. Its programmes, projects and activities are geared to provide the needed impetus for the professional development of senior level personnel involved in technician education development efforts.

UNESCO has launched an International Project on Technical and Vocational Education (UNEVOC) as of 1992 in co-operation with the Government of Germany, ILO, FAO, UNDP and NGOs interested in the reform of technical and vocational education. This project focuses on exchanging information, research and experiences on policy and programme issues in technical and vocational education through a network of co-operating institutions.

In a spirit of co-operation between UNESCO and CPSC, under UNEVOC, an attempt is being made to compile and publish studies on the development of technical and vocational education in Member States in the form of TVE profiles of 21 countries. It is hoped that this series will serve as a handy reference information on TVE systems, staff development, technical co-operation and information networking. These studies have been possible because of the full co-operation to UNESCO PROAP and CPSC by all concerned in the Member States.

The opinions expressed in this study are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the position of UNESCO and CPSC in this regard. This profile on Bangladesh was prepared by Prof. MMR Siddiqi, Seconded Faculty Member to CPSC from Bangladesh.

C.K. Basu
Director, CPSC
Victor Ordonez
Director, UNESCO PROAP

Overview



Bangladesh emerged as an independent nation in December 1971. It comprises an area of 55,000 square miles (144,499 square kilometres) with a population of 112 million. It is one of the most densely populated countries with 2,014 persons per square mile. The annual population growth was 2.17 per cent during 1981-91. Bangladesh is a relatively flat country lying in the deltaic plain of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Megna river system. The four major religions are Islam, Hinduism, Bhuddism and Christianity. The Muslims constitute about 87 per cent of the population. The constitution of the country guarantees full freedom of religious and cultural activities to all communities. About 90 per cent of the people live in some 68,000 villages.

One of the least developed countries of South Asia, Bangladesh ranks 147 among the 173 countries for which the Human Development Index (HDI) has been derived (UNDP, 1993). Bangladesh is greatly dependent on foreign aid for its economic development. Of the fourth plan public sector allocation of Tk 419,300 million, 73.89 per cent is to come as external resources. About 37 per cent of the GDP originates from agriculture (at current prices) and per capita GNP in 1991 was around $220. Life expectancy at birth is 51.8 years and the proportions of population with access to health services and sanitation are 45 per cent and 10 per cent, respectively. The daily calorie supply stands at 83 per cent of the requirement. About 57 per cent of the rural families are functionally landless and their number is growing.

Despite the dilemmas confronting the country, Bangladesh has established a unique national identity. Its society in general is not differentiated by castes or tribes but mainly by differences in wealth and education. Such differences are more amenable to reduction through policy intervention. Although numerous, the poor and the disadvantaged groups in Bangladesh have displayed a remarkable resilience to survive against most adverse circumstances including repeated and severe natural calamities. When properly organized and supported, these groups show a very high degree of efficiency not only in resource use but also in savings, investment, technology adaptation and entrepreneurship. Women in Bangladesh are poised to play a more significant role in the development process if they can be brought to the mainstream of it.

The educational pyramid of Bangladesh consists mainly of the following levels: (a) pre-primary, (b) primary, (c) secondary, (d) higher secondary or intermediate, (e) first degree and (f) master's degree. Subsequent to one or two years of pre-primary education (available mostly in cities and some of the district headquarters), the primary level extends over a five-year period (grades 1-5) and caters for children aged between 6 and 11. The secondary level consists of grades 6 to 10 (generally divided into two sub-levels viz. "junior secondary" consisting of grades 6 to 8 and "secondary", consisting of grades 9 and 10). At the end of grade 8, there is a junior scholarship examination taken by about 10 per cent of the children of grade 8, and at the end of grade 10 is the first public examination known as the Secondary School Certificate (SSC) Examination, which must be passed by all candidates seeking to move to the two-year higher secondary level (grades 11-12). At the end of grade 12 there is a further public examination leading to the Higher Secondary Certificate (HSC), which is a requirement for admission to first degree courses and appointment to secretarial positions in government services. While the bachelor's degree requires two years for a pass and three years for honours courses, the master's degree extends over two years in the case of pass graduates and one year for honours graduates.

Education has been given the highest allocation in the revenue budget of 1992-93 (about 18.62 per cent) and its share in the annual development programme is about 9.11 per cent. Public expenditure on education increased from 1.5 per cent of GNP in 1980 to 2.2 per cent of GNP in 1989. Primary education is free and on its way to being made compulsory. The literacy rate in Bangladesh is around 25 per cent only. Although the adult literacy rate has increased in recent years, in absolute figures, the number of illiterate adults increased from 32,923,083 in 1981 to 41,961,300 in 1990. Completion rates in Bangladesh are generally low at all levels, but especially in primary education. According to one source, in the mid 1980s, the proportions of grade I entrants surviving to grades 5, 8, 10 and 12 were 24 per cent, 17.8 per cent, 10.7 per cent and 4.2 per cent respectively.

The formal technical education in Bangladesh is offered in three tiers, with degree level engineering courses at the top, diploma level technician courses in the middle and the certificate level craft courses at the bottom. Degree level engineering courses (grades XIII-XVI) are offered at the Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET) located at Dhaka, and four Bangladesh Institutes of Technology (BITs) located at Dhaka, Chittagong, Rajshahi and Khulna. The middle level courses (grades XI-XIII) are offered in 20 Polytechnic Institutes, and 3 Monotechnic Institutes located mostly at district headquarters. Certificate craft courses are offered in 51 Vocational Training Institutes and 12 Technical Training Centres (TTCs) including the Institute of Marine Technology. The VTIs are under the administrative control of the Directorate of Technical Education (DTE) and the TTCs are under the Bureau of Manpower, Employment and Training (BMET).

The establishment of the Directorate of Technical Education in 1960 under the Ministry of Education (MOE) was a milestone in the historical development of the formal TVE system and the country witnessed a phenomenal expansion during the 1960s. Most of the institutional bases in the areas of engineering, technician and vocational education were created during the 1960s.

The Technical Education Act of 1967 (Act 1 of 1967), creating the East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) Technical Education Board under the MOE, was another landmark in the history of TVET in Bangladesh. BTEB is a statutory body having the primary responsibility of curriculum development, conducting examinations and awarding certificates of performance. Although created under the MOE, the BTEB exercises academic control over different institutions falling under different Ministries.

The diploma in Engineering courses (technician level) offered in 20 Polytechnic Institutes is of three years duration after the Secondary School Certificate (SSC). The technology courses offered are Civil, Electrical, Mechanical, Power, Electronics, Chemical, Food, Automobile, Industrial Wood and Architecture. The three Monotechnic Institutes offer diploma courses in Printing, Ceramics and Surveying. The Polytechnic and Monotechnic Institutes are under the administrative control of the Directorate of Technical Education (DTE) while the academic control is exercised by the Bangladesh Technical Education Board (BTEB). The diploma courses in Agriculture (three years duration after SSC), Forestry (two years duration after Higher Secondary School Certificate), and Commerce (two years duration after SSC) belong to other Directorates, but academic control lies with the BTEB. The total annual enrolment capacity in diploma programmes is about 4,630. The sub-technician courses are Survey Final, Aminship, Secretarial Science, Training in Business Typings, Textiles and the total annual enrolment capacity is about 1,420.

The vocational/trade level courses are offered in 51 Vocational Training Institutes (VTIs) under the Directorate of Technical Education and 12 Technical Training Centres (TTCs), including the Institute of Marine Technology under the Bureau of Manpower, Employment and Training (BMET) under the Ministry of Labour and Manpower. The VTIs and TTCs are, however, under the academic control of the BTEB. The trade courses offered in VTIs and TTCs are Automotive, Electrical, Welding, Carpentry, General Mechanics, Drafting (Civil), Drafting (Mech), Farm Machinery, Foundry, Machinist, Civil Construction (Masonry), Plumbing and Pipe Fitting, Radio and TV, and Refrigeration and Air Conditioning. The total annual enrolment capacity is about 5,325.

In addition to the above formal training, a variety of non-institutional training programmes are conducted by the government departments,. semi-government agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and private enterprises. The Association of Development Agencies of Bangladesh (ADAB) coordinates the works of international, national and local NGOs, and the Association of Private Non-Profit Trade Schools (APNTS) promotes the activities of private trade schools (many owned by the NGOs). Up to date statistics are not generally available. It may be said that the number of programmes may exceed 1,000 and over 100 NGOs are active in the field. About 30 NGOs are conducting school-based training in trades like electrical wiring, mechanics, carpentry, lathe operation, and welding. Important organizations engaged in non-formal training are the Bangladesh Industrial Technical Assistance Centre, the Mirpur Agricultural Workshop and Training School (MAWTS), the St Joseph School for Industrial Trades and the Underprivileged Children's Education Programme (UCEP). Many government and semi-government departments, NGOs and private organizations also conduct non-formal training programmes. Upgrading the training of the employed workforce is also available in many government and semi-government organizations and large industries. In addition, there is apprentice training which is not properly implemented.

The major problems and issues in the area of skills development that need to be addressed are: (a) lack of co-ordination between institutions in the public and private sectors, (b) under-utilization of the existing facilities, (c) high drop out rates of VTIs and TTCs, (d) lack of linkage between training institutions and labour market, (e) low female participation, and (f) unemployment.

In respect of teacher training, the Technical Teachers' Training College (TTTC), established in 1964, offers a one-year Diploma in Technical Education and a two-year BSc in Technical Education. In addition, TTTC runs many short courses. The location of TTTC over the ground floor of the Institute of Glass and Ceramics is a great handicap for further expansion of both the institutions. The decision of the Ministry of Education to give the ground floor to TTTC is yet to be implemented. TTTC, being an apex institution, has a great role to play in staff development for all categories of teachers and administrators of the entire TVE system. In the course of time, TTTC will have to play a greater role by offering post-graduate courses and acting as an intellectual arm of the Ministry of Education in the area of TVE. To train the teachers of VTIs, the Vocational Teachers' Training College (VTTI) was established in 1982 at Bogra. The Institute offers one-year certificate courses. Attempts are being made to introduce a Diploma in Vocational Education. VTTI also offers short refresher courses to teachers and management courses to the administrators. Both TTTC and VTTI are well equipped and well staffed institutions. A proper linkage among TTTC, VTTI and BTEB may be established for providing leadership in the training of skilled manpower needed by the country.

The issues and problems relating particularly to vocational education have been addressed and recommendations made in many seminars and symposia, and also by many organizations like ILO. These have been briefly stated in Chapter V. The Annexes I, II and III give the names of the various TVE institutes and statistics on the subject.

Part I: General Information

1.1. Physical Geography, Demography and Religion

"Bangladesh is a magical tapestry weaved with the threads of hope, struggle and love. The long meandering rivers and water ways are like motions of a life, vibrant and alive, taking and returning, loving and being loved. The land is the frame which holds the tapestry together and the people are the colours which make it so enchanting." (Government of Bangladesh 1987; Meet Bangladesh page 26). Against this official picture of Bangladesh viewed with literary expression, Bangladesh reflects 'a composite picture of all the extremes of poverty and under development on one hand, and is a land of unexplored potentialities and untapped resources - both human and physical' on the other. (Rahman, 1991).

Bangladesh comprises on area of 55,598 square miles (144,499 square kilometres) with a population of 112 million. It is one of the most densely populated countries, with 2,014 persons per square mile and an annual population growth of 2.17 per cent during 1981-91.

A sub-sector study by the Government of Bangladesh and the UNDP on "Secondary Education in Bangladesh" in December, 1992 is an excellent document portraying the state of secondary education including technical and vocational education. The following paragraphs, which provide a socio-economic background of Bangladesh, are taken from the document, with some updating.

The urban population increased from 8.78 per cent in 1974 to 15.18 per cent in 1981. With an average annual growth rate projected to be 1.8 per cent during 1989 - 2000, the population is estimated to increase to 128 million by the year 2000 and 176 million by 2025. According to one estimate, the dependency ratio of 48 per cent in 1985 is expected to drop to 42 per cent by the year 2000, but will remain above the Asian average, as at present (the Asian averages for the corresponding years being 43 per cent and 36 per cent respectively). The annual growth rate of the labour force has been projected at 3.4 per cent during the Fourth Five-Year Plan (1990-95). This would mostly be the result of an increasing female participation in the labour force. In 1989, female labour and child labour (5-14 years) accounted for 41.22 per cent and 12.03 per cent respectively of the total civilian labour force. Table 1.1 gives the age structure of the population and Table 1.2 shows a breakdown of the civilian labour force.

Across the Tropic of Cancer Bangladesh extends between 20° 34' and 26° 38' North Latitudes, and between 88° 01' and 92° 41' East Longitudes. It is almost surrounded by Indian territory except for a small strip of frontier with Burma on the southeast and the southern border fronting the Bay of Bengal. Bangladesh is a relatively flat country lying in the deltaic plain of the Ganges - Brahmaputra - Megna river system. The only significant uplands occur in the north-east and south-east of the country with average elevations of 244 m and 610 m respectively. The country is covered with a network of numerous rivers and canals forming a maze of interconnecting channels

Table 1.1 Age Structure of the Bangladesh Population (per cent)

Year	0-14 Years	15-64 Years	Above 64
1990	42.9	54.0	3.1
2025	25.7	68.9	5.4

Source: World Bank, World Development Report 1992

Table 1.2 Civilian Labour Force in 1989 (millions)

Sex	Urban	Rural	Total
Male	4.3	25.5	29.8
Female	1.4	19.5	20.9
Both Sexes	5.7	45.0	50.7

Source: BBS, Report on Labour Force Survey 1989

It is believed that an Austro-Asian race first inhabited this region in an unknown prehistoric age. Then came the Dravidians, Aryans and Mongolians. Archaeological excavations show signs of powerful dynasties who ruled the land till the Muslims conquered it in the 11th century and established their rule. After more than seven centuries of Muslim rule came the British who took over from the Muslims in the mid-18th century. In 1947, the British left and the country became part of Pakistan. The independent People's Republic of Bangladesh was born on 16 December 1971.

The four major religions are Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism and Christianity. The Muslims constitute about 87 per cent of the population. The constitution of the country guarantees full freedom of religious and cultural activities for all communities.

About 90 per cent of the people live in some 68,000 villages where men work in the fields from dawn to dusk tending crops and animals while women cook, wash and take care of the children at home. Rice and fish are the common diet. Lunges and vest are the usual attire for men in the rural areas as opposed to shirts and trousers in the urban areas. The saree is women's common dress in both rural and urban areas. There are about half a million tribal people, the majority of whom live in Chittagong Hill Tracts. The tribes have distinct cultures of their own.

1.2 The Socio-Economic Background

Bangladesh ranks 147 among the 173 countries for which the Human Development Index (HDI) has been derived (UNDP, 1993). As an undeveloped nation, it is greatly dependent on foreign aid for its economic development. In 1990, its total external debt amounted to US $12, 245.00 million. Of the Fourth Plan public sector allocation of Tk 419,300 million, 73.89 per cent is to come as external resources. Official development assistance (ODA) accounts for 10.5 per cent of the nation's GNP. About 37 per cent of the GDP originates from agriculture (at current prices), and the per capita GNP in 1991 was around $220. Life expectancy at birth is 51.8 years and the proportions of population with access to health services and sanitation are 45 per cent and 10 per cent respectively. The daily calorie supply stands at 83 per cent of the requirement.

About 57 per cent of the rural families of Bangladesh are functionally landless and their numbers have been increasing. The landless families are classified into three categories. Category 1 includes those who have neither a homestead nor any cultivable land; category 2 consists of those who have only a homestead but no cultivable land; and category 3 includes those who have a homestead and cultivable land up to 0.50 acre. The situation of landlessness in the rural areas depicted in the Bangladesh Agricultural Census (1983-84) is shown in Table 1.3. The Ministry of Land points out that land ownership is highly skewed. About 5 per cent of the families having land above 7.5 acres own 26 per cent of the land and 70 per cent of the families having land below 2.5 acres own only 29 per cent of the land. The per capita availability of crop land is 0.24 acre.

Table 1.3

Category	Number	Percentage
1	1,198,000	8.7
2	2,714.000	19,6
3	3,898,000	28.2
Total	7,810.000	56.5

Source: The Ministry of Land, Land Reforms in Bangladesh (1989), p 15.

Despite the dilemmas confronting the socio-economic conditions of Bangladesh, there are certain inherent dynamisms in the economy, which may be pointed out as follows:

i) Bangladesh has established a unique national identity through the process of freedom struggle and a war of independence.

ii) Bangladesh society has also achieved a substantial degree of vertical social mobility. The Bangladesh society in general is not differentiated by castes or tribes but mainly by differences in wealth and education. Such differences are more amenable to reduction through policy intervention.

iii) Although numerous, the poor and the disadvantaged groups in Bangladesh have displayed a remarkable resilience to survive against most adverse circumstances, including repeated and severe natural calamities. When properly organized and supported, these groups show a very high degree of efficiency not only in resource use but also in savings, investment as well as technology adaptation and entrepreneurship.

iv) Women in Bangladesh are poised to play a more significant role in the development process if they can be brought to the mainstream of the development process.

v) Over the last three decades, Bangladesh has gained valuable experience not only in social development based on innovative grassroots experiments, but also in the process of structural adjustment needed for short-term stabilization and long-term growth.

1.3 Literacy and Education

Article 17 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh provides for: (a) establishing a uniform, mass-oriented and universal system of education, and extending free and compulsory education to all children to such a stage as may be determined by law; (b) relating education to the needs of the society and producing properly trained and motivated citizens to serve those needs; and (c) removing illiteracy within such a time as may be determined by law. The first compulsory attendance law (Act 27 of 1990) came into force in 68 Thanas (smallest administrative unit in Bangladesh) in January 1992. (The literacy in Bangladesh is around 2 5 per cent only).

Education has been given the highest allocation in the revenue budget of 1992-93 (about 18.62 per cent) and its share in the current annual development programme is about 9.11 per cent. Tables 1.4 and 1.5 give summaries of the revenue budget and annual development programme (ADP) for education respectively. Public expenditure on education increased from 1.5 per cent of GNP in 1980 to 2.2 per cent of GNP in 1989.

Table 1.4 Revenue Budget for Education: 1990-1993 (amounts in thousand Taka)

Subsector	1990-91 (Accounts)		1991-92 (RE)		1992-93 (BE)
	Amount	Per cent	Amount	Per cent	Amount	Per cent
Primary Education	5,268,537	45.41	6,654,106	48.16	7,405,566	46.52
Secondary & Higher Education	4,666,646	40.22	5,089,114	36.84	6,308,550	39.63
Technical Education	271,013	2.34	333,986	2.42	330,236	2.07
University Education	1,030,050	8.88	1,170,725	8.47	1,229,500	7.72
Others	365,120	3.15	567,838	4.11	646,428	4.06
Total	11,601,366	100.00	13,815,769	100.00	15,920,280	100.00

Source: Ministry of Finance, Demands for Grants and Appropriations (Non-development), 1992-93, p.101.

Table 1.5 Annual Development Programme for Education: 1991-93 (in million Taka)

Subsector	1991-92 (Revised)		1992-93 (Budget)
	Allocation	Per cent	Allocation	Per cent
Primary Education	3,385.219	72.36	5,281.853	68.54
Secondary & Higher Education	418.300	8.94	1,029.300	13.36
Technical Education	50.000	1.07	152.811	1.98
University Education	628.131	13.43	852.986	11.07
MOE's Own Projects	196.719	4.20	389.050	5.05
TOTAL	4,678.369	100.00	7,706.000	100.00

Source: Planning Commission, Annual Development Programme: 1992-93

Primary education is free and is on its way to being made compulsory. Although the adult literacy rate has increased in recent years, in absolute figures, the number of illiterate adults increased from 32, 923, 083 in 1981 to 41, 961, 300 in 1990. In 1981, the proportion of illiterate urban adult population was 51.8 per cent as against 74.5 per cent for the rural adult population. Table 1.6 gives percentages of adult illiteracy in 1981 and 1990.

Table 1.6 Percentage of Illiterate Adults (1981 & 1990)

	Urban Population			Rural Population			Total Population
Year	M	F	MF	M	F	MF	M	F	MF
1981	42.0	65.9	51.8	64.5	84.7	74.5	60.3	82.0	70.8
1990	-	-	-	-	-	-	52.9	78.0	64.7

Source: UNESCO Statistical Yearbook 1991

Completion rates in Bangladesh are generally low at all levels, but especially in primary education. According to one source, in the mid-1980s, the proportions of grade 1 entrants surviving to grades 5, 8, 10 and 12 were 24 per cent, 17.8 per cent, 10.7 per cent, and 4.2 per cent respectively.

Part II: Education and Development Plans


2.1 Structure


The educational pyramid of Bangladesh consists mainly of the following levels: (a) pre-primary, (b) primary, (c) secondary, (d) higher secondary or intermediate, (e) first degree and (f) master's degree.

Following one or two years of pre-primary education (available mostly in the cities and some of the district headquarters), the primary level extends over a five-year period (grades 1-5) and caters for children of the age group 6-11. One of the major objectives of the Third Five-Year Plan (1985-90) was to enrol 70 per cent of the primary aged children by 1990 and ensure their retention for completion of the primary cycle in order that universal primary education (UPE) could be achieved by the end of the century. In 1990, the numbers of pre-primary and primary schools were reported to be 1,515 and 45,917, respectively.

The secondary level consists of grades 6 to 10 (generally divided into two sub-levels: "junior secondary", consisting of grades 6 to 8 and "secondary", consisting of grades 9 and 10). At the end of grade 8, there is a Junior Scholarship examination taken by about 10 per cent of the children of grade 8, and at the end of grade 10 is the first public examination, known as the Secondary School Certificate (SSC) Examination, which must be passed by all candidates seeking to move to the two-year higher secondary level (grades 11-12). At the end of grade 12 there is a further public examination leading to the Higher Secondary Certificate (HSC), which is a requirement for admission to first degree courses and appointment to secretarial positions in government services. While the bachelor's degree requires two years for a pass and three years for honours courses, the master's degree extends over two years in the case of pass graduates and one year for honours graduates. A diagram outlining the present educational structure of Bangladesh is given in Figure 1.

2.2 Secondary Education

The GOB and UNDP Study in 1992 on Secondary Education in Bangladesh documented their findings as described below.

Goals and Objectives. Since Bangladesh is yet to have an education policy document, there has been no official statement of the goals and objectives of secondary education in the country. The Bangladesh National Education Commission, however, in its report (February 1988), laid down the following aims and objectives of secondary education:

1. to extend and consolidate basic education received by pupils at the primary level;

2. to provide pupils with basic knowledge of different subjects (language, mathematics, science, religion, history, geography, economics, civics, home economics, environment, art and crafts, etc.).

3. to make pupils aware of moral and spiritual values;

4. to prepare pupils to be part of dutiful and skilled manpower needed for the economic development of the country;

5. to develop pupils as good citizens so that they become aware of their responsibilities, duties, and rights.

6. to develop among pupils knowledge-based democratic beliefs and a sense of moral values;

7. to help develop fully the potential abilities and possibilities of pupils;

8. to prepare meritorious pupils for higher studies in accordance with their merit and aptitude;

9. to help pupils develop confidence in their own thoughts and reasoning and become respectful of others' opinions;

10. to give pupils an education which would enable them to live better lives in their families, communities, and the whole world;

11. to prepare pupils for suitable vocations by increasing their ability for work; and

12. to improve the learners' physical and mental health.

Institutions, Enrolments, and Teachers. Bangladesh has a total of 10,715 secondary schools (including 2,000 junior high schools and 8,715 high schools), 14.11 per cent of the high schools being exclusively for girls. The number of government managed high schools is 316 (170 for boys and 146 for girls). During 1987-92, there has been an addition of 93 government high schools, which included 92 nationalized institutions and 1 newly established school. The number of government high schools increased from 141 in 1970 to 150 in 1980, 223 in 1987, and 316 in December 1992. The Fourth Plan document recommends abandoning the nationalization policy, as it blocks community participation and results in enrolment sizes less than the optimum.

While the secondary schools are college preparatory and do not provide for a vocational stream, there are 51 vocational training institutes (VTIs) under the Directorate of Technical Education and 12 technical training centres under the Ministry of Labour, which are intended for skill development in selected trades. In 1990, the numbers of trainees in the VTIs and technical training centres were 3,458 and 3,710 respectively. The? corresponding numbers of teachers or instructors were 464 and 395.

The VTIs and technical training centres offer two-year courses (generally after grade VIII) in two separate programmes leading to National Skill Standard grade III at the end of the first year and National Skill Standard grade II on completion of the second year. The certificates are awarded by the Bangladesh Technical Education Board. Furthermore, there are a number of private technical schools which offer formal and non-formal vocational courses. The major problems and issues in the area of skill development that need to be addressed are: (a) lack of co-ordination between institutions in the public and private sectors, (b) under-utilization of the existing facilities, (c) high dropout rates of the VTIs and technical training centres, (d) lack of linkage between the training institutions and the labour market, and (e) low female participation. (The technical and vocational education and training will be discussed in greater detail in the following chapters).

In 1991, the number of higher secondary schools (intermediate colleges) and degree colleges were 323 and 547, respectively.* The number of institutions exclusively for girls was 100 (intermediate 37; degree 63). Of the 870 intermediate and degree colleges, 220 or 25.28 per cent are managed by the Government. Table 1.7 gives a breakdown of enrolments of intermediate and degree colleges in 1991. It is revealed from the table that the proportion of females at the intermediate, degree (pass), degree (honours), and master's levels is 28.20 per cent, 18.98 per cent, 11.02 per cent and 3.39 per cent, respectively. The number of girls at the higher secondary level increased from 154,267 in 1989 to 163,509 in 1991.

*A recent technical assistance study (TA 1489-BAN of the Asian Development Bank, Draft Final Report, October 1992) found the number of colleges of all categories (including intermediate and degree colleges, cadet colleges, teachers' training colleges, and commercial institutes) to be 940. All degree colleges, with the exception of three colleges of arts and crafts, have intermediate sections.

Table 1.7 Enrolments of Intermediate and Degree Colleges (1991)

Category		Intermediate Level	Degree (Pass) Level	Degree (Hons.) Level	Master's Level	Total
Intermediate Colleges
	Male	85,385	-	-	-	85,385
	Female	35,509	-	-	-	35,509
Total		120,894				120,894
Degree Colleges
	Male	330,930	194,465	39,685	11,901	576,981
	Female	128,000	45,547	4,917	417	178,881
Total		458,930	240,012	44,602	12,318	755,862
Total (both sexes)		579,824	240,012	44,602	12,318	876,756

Source: BANBEIS

The numbers for institutions, pupils, and teachers at the secondary level for the period 1980-91 are given in Table 1.8. While the number of institutions increased by 2,230 during the period, enrolment increased by 1.01 million, and the number of teachers showed an increased of 44, 345. The teacher-pupil ratio, however, did not change materially. (In 1980, the teacher-pupil ratio was 1:25.12 as against 1:24.35 in 1991. The average teacher-pupil ratio at the secondary level for Asia is 1:23). While the enrolment of girls increased from 28.33 per cent in 1980 to 33.91 per cent in 1991, the proportion of women teachers showed a negligible increase from 8.38 to 9.81 per cent.

Table 1.8 Institutions, Enrolments, and Teachers at the Secondary Level (1980-91)

	Institutions			Enrolments			Teachers
	Junior High Schools	High Schools	Total	Male	Female	Total	Male	Female	Total
1980	2,009	6,476	8,485	1,535,422	606,913	2,142,335	78,127	7,144	85,271
1985	2,248	7,196	9,444	1,742,505	840,806	2,583,311	82,951	9,290	92,241
1986	2,588	7,269	9,857	1,791,951	867,748	2,659,699	92,593	9,718	102,311
1987	2,291	7,681	9,972	1.848,626	893,626	2,742,252	103,208	11,026	114,234
1988	2,267	7,890	10,157	1,879,404	928,143	2,807,547	105,403	11,432	116,835
1989	2,330	7,890	10,220	1,928,693	971,945	2,900,638	110,668	11,802	122,470
1990	2,311	8,137	10,448	1,977,988	1,015,745	2,993,733	111,016	11,880	122,896
1991	2,000	8,715	10,715	2,085,941	1,070,178	3,156,119	116,905	12,711	129,616

Source: BANBEIS
Note: In 1991, the number of high schools exclusively for girls was 1230 (or 14.11%).

While the urban population constitutes about 16 per cent of the total population, 19.51 per cent of the secondary schools are located in the urban areas. Furthermore, as shown in Table 1.9, the urban enrolment and urban teachers represent 28.79 per cent and 26.45 per cent of the respective totals. The urban institutions have a higher average enrolment than the rural schools.

Table 1.9 Proportions of Schools, Enrolments, and Teachers at the Secondary Level in Urban and Rural Areas

Year	Schools (%)		Enrolments (%)		Teachers (%)
	Urban	Rural	Urban	Rural	Urban	Rural
1988	19.59	80.41	30.28	69.72	26.88	73.12
1989	19.76	80.22	29.06	70.94	26.58	73.42
1990	19.51	80.49	28.79	71.21	26.45	73.55

Source: Calculated from BBS, Bangladesh Education Statistics 1991.

An Outline of the Educational Structure of Bangladesh September 1987

Acronyms:

Agr	Agriculture
BAU	Bangladesh Agricultural University
BCom	Bachelor of Commerce
BDS	Bachelor of Dental Surgery
BFA	Bachelor of Fine Art
BMus	Bachelor of Music
BPEd	Bachelor of Physical Education
BSS	Bachelor of Social Science
BUET	Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology
CAgr	Certificate in Agriculture
CEd	Certificate in Education
CSS	Certificate in Secretarial Science
DipCom	Diploma in Commerce
DLSc	Diploma in Library Science
Eng	Engineering
HE	Home Economics
HSC	Higher Secondary Certificate (after 12 years of schooling)
JDPE	Junior Diploma in Physical Education
LLB	Bachelor of Laws
LLM	Master of Laws
LSc	Library Science
MBA	Master of Business Administration
MBBS	Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of
MCom	Surgery Master of Commerce
MFA	Master of Finance Administration
MPhil	Master of Philosophy
MSS	Master of Social Science
SSC	Secondary School Certificate (after 10 years of schooling)
TechEd	Technical Education
Text Tech	Textile Technology

2.3 Development Plans

Development Planning in Bangladesh passed through five successive stages: the First Five-Year Plan (1973-78), the Two-Year Plan (1978-80), the Second Five-Year Plan (1980-85), the Third Five-Year Plan (1985-90), and the Fourth Five-Year Plan (1990-95). Table 1.10 gives the sizes, outlays, and targets of the five plans.

The First Plan and the Two-Year Plan. The total allocation for education during the First Plan and the Two-Year Plan amounted to Tk 454.00 crore (one crore = 10 million) while total ADP provision during the period (1973-80) came to Tk. 289.52 crore. Actual utilization, however, was around Tk. 258.85 crore, which represented 57.02 per cent of the Plan allocation and 89.41 per cent of the ADP provision. As Table 1.11 shows, actual expenditure on the universities exceeded expenditures on primary and secondary education taken together.

The Second Plan. The Second Plan, for the first time, made a commitment for universal primary education (UPE) and initiated a mass education programme for illiterate adults. In the education sector, the highest allocation of 49.48 per cent went to primary education.

Table 1.10 Plan Sizes, Outlays, and GDP Growth Rates (at respective base-year prices)

	Plan size (Crore Taka)				Annual GDP Growth (%)
Plan	Public Sector	Private Sector	Total	Actual Outlay (Crore Taka)	Target	Actual
First Plan (1973-78)	3,952	503	4,455	2,074	5.5	4.0
Two-Year Plan (1978-80)	3,261	600	3,861	3,359	5.6	3.5
Second Plan (1980-85)	11,100	6,100	17,200	15,297	5.4	3.8
Third Plan (1985-90)	25,000	13,600	38,600	*26,639	5.4	3.8
Fourth Plan (1990-95)	41,930	27,000	68,930	-	5.0	-

Source: The Fourth Five-Year Plan (Revised Draft II, March 1991).

*Includes Tk. 16,757 crore in the public sector and Tk. 9,882 crore in the private sector.

Note: A revised Fourth Plan has been approved by the National Economic Council on 7 March 1993. The size of the revised Plan has been reduced to Tk. 62,000 crore (public sector: Tk. 34,700 crore; private sector: Tk. 27,300 crore).

Table 1.11 Development Expenditure on Education during the First Plan and the Two-Year Plan: 1973-80 (allocations and ADP provisions in Crore Taka)

Subsector	Allocation	ADP Provision	Actual Expenditure	Expenditure as % of Allocation	Expenditure as % of ADP Provision
Primary Education	80.04	36.80	34.11	42.62	92.69
Secondary Education	88.65	35.05	30.11	33.97	85.91
College Education	38.55	17.18	14.76	38.29	85.91
Teacher Education	28.23	10.18	7.92	28.05	77.80
Other Educational Activities (DPI)	18.54	49.38	47.99	258.85	97.19
Technical Education	88.63	59.51	47.07	53.11	79.10
University Education	57.16	69.11	68.30	119,49	98.83
MOE's Own Schemes	54.20	12.31	8.59	15.85	69.78
Total	454.00	289.52	258.85	57.02	89.41

Source: The Second Five-Year Plan

In secondary education, 15 projects were undertaken. The major programmes included: (a) development of 400 community schools at the Thana level for providing low-cost non-formal vocational education to the rural populace, (b) introduction of a new science course in non-government secondary schools, and (c) development of selected nationalized, government and non-government high schools. Twenty-five non-government high schools were nationalized, four colleges of education were converted into TTCs, and 10 TTCs were developed. Table 1.12 gives programme-wise development allocations and expenditures during the Second Plan.

Table 1.12 Public Sector Allocations and Expenditures on Education during the Second Plan: 1980-85 (allocations and expenditures in current prices; Crore Taka)

Programme	Allocation		Expenditure
	Amount	%	Amount	%
Primary Education	331.68	49.48	210.70	43.84
Mass Education	6.98	1.04	9.41	1.96
Secondary Education	86.86	12.95	75.33	15.67
Madrasah Education	2.18	0.33	1.70	0.35
Teacher Education	9.52	1.42	13.13	2.73
College Education	19.09	2.85	19.02	3.96
Scholarships	50.00	7.46	47.53	9.89
Technical Education	88.18	13.15	49.14	10.22
University Education	48.85	7.29	50.91	10.60
Educational Planning, Administration & Management	72.02	4.03	3.72	0.78
Total	715.36	100.00	480.59	100.00

Source: The Third Five-Year Plan (1985-90).

The Third Plan. In the Third Plan period (1985-90), development outlay on education amounted to Tk. 9,723.50 million including Tk. 5,269.10 million on primary education, Tk. 985.50 million on secondary education, and Tk. 396.40 million on teacher training (general), the respective proportions being 54.19 per cent, 10.14 per cent, and 4.08 per cent respectively. The total expenditure on secondary education included Government contribution of 172.80 million and project aid of Tk. 812.70 million. The following were the main achievements in the area of secondary education during the Third Plan:

a) At the Thana level, 400 high schools were developed as community schools and 55,000 persons (out of a target of 168,000) were trained in various trades. The programme came to an end in June 1988.

b) A total of 4,000 non-government institutions (including 3,800 high schools and 200 madrasahs) have been developed under the Secondary Science Education Sector Project (SSESP). The project included provision of laboratories, science equipment, and books. A FREPD evaluation (September 1991) of the SSESP reveals that on an average, 7.28 science classes and 2.94 other classes per week are held in the rooms constructed under the SSESP, the utilization index being below the desired level.

c) Classroom accommodation has been enhanced and furniture, tools, equipment, and books have been provided to 79 government high schools.

The Fourth Plan. In the Fourth Plan (1990-95), the public sector allocation for education is of the order of Tk. 23,627.30 million or 5.63 per cent of the total public sector allocation of Tk. 419,300.00 million. The allocation for education includes Tk. 12,138.90 million (51.37%) for primary education, Tk. 4,463.50 million (18.89%) for secondary education, and Tk. 105.00 million (0.44%) for teacher training. The objectives and strategies emphasized by the Plan, particularly in relation to secondary education, include, inter alia, the following:

a) optimum use of the existing facilities and optimum enrolment in the schools;

b) enhanced participation of girls;

c) adhering to a minimum standard of library and laboratory;

d) strengthening academic supervision and administrative inspection of schools through restructuring of the relevant organizations;

e) professional strengthening of the National Curriculum and Textbook Board (NCTB) in order that the curricula and syllabuses can keep pace with the international modernization trends;

f) extension education and management training for teachers and educational administrators; and

g) environmental education for teachers and students at all levels.

The Fourth Plan has also suggested a number of programmes that would contribute to its objectives. These include: (a) completing spill-over components of the on-going projects for enhancing physical facilities of 79 government schools, (b) a rehabilitation project involving 2,525 secondary schools, (c) major renovation of some 250 government secondary schools, (d) implementing the policy of tuition fee exemption for girls of grades 6-8 in the non-municipal areas, (e) a large-scale stipend programme for rural secondary girls, (f) strengthening academic and administrative supervision of the Directorate of Secondary and Higher Education (DSHE) through appropriate reorganization, and (g) creation of an Education Service Commission.

Part III: Technical Education System


3.1 Formal Technical Education


The formal technical education in Bangladesh is offered in three tiers, with degree level engineering courses at the top, diploma level technician courses at the middle and certificate level craft courses at the bottom. Degree level engineering courses (grades XIII-XVI) are offered at the Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET) located at Dhaka, and four Bangladesh Institutes of Technology (BITs) located at Dhaka, Chittagong, Rajshahi and Khulna. BITs were previously Engineering Colleges under the administrative control of the Directorate of Technical Education. Now they are autonomous institutions controlled by BIT Council headed by the Minster of Education. Like all other universities BUET is an autonomous institution financed through the University Grants Commission. The middle level courses (Grade XI-XIII) are offered in 20 Polytechnic Institutes, three Monotechnic Institutes, located mostly at district headquarters. Certificate craft courses are offered in 51 Vocational Training Institutes and 12 Technical Training Centres (TTCs) including the Institute of Marine Technology The VTIs are under the administrative control of the Directorate of Technical Education (DTE) and the TTCs are under the Bureau of Manpower, Employment and Training (BMET).

3.2 Historical Development

Establishment of the Directorate of Technical Education

Although all Education Commissions highlighted the importance of TVET and its role in creating a skilled manpower needed for rapid industrialization and economic growth, the National Education Commission of 1959 made specific recommendations which, inter alia, included the establishment of a separate Directorate of Technical Education with a view to developing a well-knit system of technical education in the country. The establishment of the Directorate of Technical Education in 196