Contributions to the congress came from many sources. Appreciation is expressed to all those who have contributed in one way or another to this publication, and to the editor, Betty Hollinshead, who gave generously of her time and energy to compile these materials into one publication.

The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of Unesco concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Introduction

In 1987 Unesco organized an International Congress on the Development and Improvement of Technical and Vocational Education (Berlin, 22 June-1 July).¹ Nearly 200 participants from over 60 Member States of Unesco, including representatives of intergovernmental and international non-governmental organizations and the specialized agencies of the United Nations system took part.

1. Hereafter referred to as the Berlin Congress.

For the purposes of this publication, the following definitions from the Unesco: IBE Education Thesaurus (4th rev. ed.) are used:

Technical education: Formal education designed to provide knowledge and skills underlying production processes with a wider connotation than vocational education at secondary or higher level.

Vocational education: Formal education designed to prepare for skilled occupations in industry, agriculture and commerce, generally at secondary level.

The data on which this publication is based are derived from documents listed in the Select Bibliography.

The main aims of the publication are to: (a) utilize some elements from the above materials so as to give a comprehensive view of worldwide trends in the development of technical and vocational education; (b) highlight innovative policies, practices and approaches in technical and vocational education to meet the future developmental needs of the countries; and (c) make recommendations, based on the findings of the Berlin Congress, for future co-operative actions and for Unesco to act as a major catalyst in promoting and co-ordinating such actions.

The text of the publication also gives, where appropriate, an indication of trends for the 1990s in the development of technical and vocational education.

This work is divided into three parts. Part One addresses technological change and socio-economic development, and their impact on technical and vocational education. It considers the quantitative expansion of technical and vocational education and, finally, looks at the democratization of the education process in relation to technical and vocational education.

Part Two reviews current practices and strategies in technical and vocational education in Member States, focusing on planning, administration and management of technical and vocational education, and preparation of key personnel. This part covers vocational guidance and counselling, the development of instructional media for technical and vocational education and national experiences in the development of training educational training personnel.

Part Three highlights some trends and issues in technical and vocational education in Member States, indicates important areas for international co-operation and finally summarizes recommendations for action in some priority areas.

PART ONE: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT



1. Technological change and trends in technological and socio-economic development

The technological revolution and its impact on society

It is widely accepted that the world is at the threshold of an information and micro-electronic revolution, ushering in a new way of living and working, which in turn is making new demands on the education system. The information revolution is characterized by the speed of technological change and processing and exchange of information; it has had a profound effect on the productive processes not only in the industrialized world, but also in those countries that have not gone a long way towards industrialization. All peoples and countries are affected by the development and introduction of these new technologies, but trends are such that the technological revolution may also contribute over the next few years to an increase of world inequalities, widening the gap between the industrialized and developing countries.

The technological revolution will profoundly affect the structure and organization of society, but the speed with which new technologies are adopted depends largely on the education and skill levels of the workforce. The new demands on education and training are also mirrored by demands on changes in attitudes and values and on technical imperatives, as exemplified by the relatively similar pattern of adoption of high-technology equipment and modernization of production processes throughout the world, regardless of differences in ideology and political systems.

As a consequence, the main difference is not one of nature or kind but of how much the new technologies percolate the manufacturing sector. Many developing countries are more dualistic and heterogeneous than the industrialized countries, marked by differential rates of change and adaptation to technological development.

Increased population growth, a higher rate of unemployment and the growing participation of women in economic activities present new demands for skilled manpower training needs in technical and vocational education. The problem all countries face is how to meet this increasing demand against the backdrop of decreasing economic performance. Thus a situation has arisen in which social and economic progress can no longer be contemplated in the absence of rigorous, consistent policies to improve and update technical and vocational education. The introduction of new technologies has a strong impact on various skills, industries, production and agricultural processes. The effect of the new technologies depends on management policy, attitudes, trade union bargaining strength, skill levels of workers, education and training, and resource allocation.

Scientific and technological progress and its implications for education

It is scientific and technological progress and change that lead to the integration of production and the service process. As a result of structural, technological and organizational changes, the occupational structure of the labour force has entered a period of rapid change characterized by: (a) the continuing movement of economic activity and employment from the agricultural to the manufacturing and service sector; (b) the shift away from blue-collar jobs found mainly in outdated manufacturing processes to white-collar work, primarily in the newly emerging production and service sector; (c) the tendency for employment to increase in white-collar occupations, particularly professional, technical, administrative and managerial work, which require higher education and training qualifications; and (d) the shift away from traditional occupational groupings to new skill groupings, based on new competence, reflecting scientific and technological advancements. In the future, employers and institutions will increasingly demand more advanced skills than the old, traditional occupations; low-skilled employment will decrease absolutely.

Technical and vocational education are the connecting links between the school system and the employment market, which means that developments in technical and vocational education are intimately linked to general trends in the economy and the labour market and are particularly susceptible to the effects of technological change, the speed of which will probably be affected by its social acceptance. But the speed of such diffusion of technology into society is sometimes overrated. At present, only a fraction of the possible applications of new technology are actually fully utilized. Nevertheless, by the early 1990s it is likely that computer technology will be introduced in most workplaces in the industrialized world. The diffusion of new technology into the workplace is sometimes seen as a potential threat to employment, particularly in larger production units. Linked with this, it is likely that there will be an increase in smaller enterprises based on technological innovation and micro-computer technology and supported by a growing demand for services and for high-quality, individually designed products.

Automation and the increased adoption of new technologies will in turn promote an increased demand for qualified labour. Growing independence and individual responsibility in any given job will lead to the need for flexible arrangements in terms of job relationships to suit more individualized job requirements. In short, we are entering a new period of the ‘multi-skilled’ worker.

These changes will increase the demand for job flexibility, improvisation, team-work and a workforce that possesses a broad general knowledge of integrated systems and processes.

These trends will lead to the need for all countries to: (a) increase the resources invested in technical and vocational education, and (b) make adjustments to ensure that technical and vocational education is compatible with present and projected resource allocation priorities.

The influence of the changes in socio-economic development on training of skilled manpower

The new changes in socio-economic development generate certain requirements for skilled technical manpower, including the need for: (a) training and retraining programmes for the majority of workers to develop all the required skills for various occupations in which trainees are seeking employment or re-employment; (b) increasing or decreasing the workers’ level of skills as a function of technological change and the way in which management allocates work between individuals; (c) increasing mathematical skills and the ability to abstract, plan and anticipate future situations increases; and (d) emphasizing maintenance skills in training, leading to the development of multiple inter-disciplinary skills. In addition, new technologies will alter managerial communication and decision-making processes, with the management of technological change increasingly becoming a strategic preoccupation of company management.

These changes will generate the need for new working patterns, with people in a variety of positions and roles being required to work together, cutting across all the corporate functions and departments. All categories of workers and managers will need a general skill or ability to adjust to the changes in technology and work organization. In order to meet the need for training in these newly required skills, education must change, emphasizing synthesis rather than analysis in these circumstances of increasing complexity. Education must respond to change, not by responding to new demands and circumstances, but rather by integrating old and new technologies harmoniously. It must engender a sense of the future, so that both learners and institutions are prepared for change and constant renewal; and it must facilitate the development of flexibility and adaptability. Emphasis should be placed on developing new multiple skills and on understanding the relationship between various activities and the way things combine and re-combine rather than on the acquisition of skills specific to only one activity. Education must teach conceptual innovation and develop the ability to identify and associate variables and become perceptually flexible.

2. The impact of technological and socio-economic development on technical and vocational education

The development of skilled manpower is largely influenced by some of the following major factors: the change in the general education structure, the growth of management, and the impact of information technology.

Since technical and vocational education is the connecting link between the formal and non-formal education systems and the world of work, it must keep abreast of the changes caused by rapid scientific and technological progress. The Berlin Congress identified four important factors. First, information technology is changing the organization of work, favouring the creation of small and medium-sized companies. Next, long-term workforce planning is becoming more difficult because of the pace of technological change. Third, the evolving occupational structure is changing the demands for training placed upon technical and vocational education. Finally, the qualification requirements for graduates of technical and vocational education are changing.

These factors require new types of vocational institutions and technical centres capable of balancing the beneficial effects of rapid scientific and technological advances with the potential negative social consequences of their introduction. This recognition of the close interdependency of social and economic developments is a relatively recent occurrence. Technical and vocational education is affected in two ways: through the demand for new skills and qualifications, and through changes in the conduct of technical and vocational education themselves.

It is generally agreed that basic vocational and technical education now needs to be further enriched with elements previously considered part of general education (language and mathematics), but which now have a direct practical significance and belong to the basic skills demanded in almost every occupation. Without doubt, a good working knowledge of computer technology will in future be part of technical and vocational education, for this technology will soon affect all forms of work and leisure.

The future global competitiveness of all economies will depend on their ability to integrate high technology with the already existing economy. Technical and vocational education should not be equated merely with the technical demands of new technology. Knowledge is based on the development of social abilities and of the individual character and, in the widest sense, is conditioned by language and culture. Education policy should therefore: imply an understanding of the limits of new technology; emphasize the need to link technology to its social context; and stress the continuing need for human intervention in a computer-controlled environment.

Introducing new technologies in technical and vocational institutions is a priority for economic development and requires adequate and readily available funding for the necessary equipment and physical facilities, such as a CAD-CAM centre (computer-assisted design, computer-assisted manufacture). Furthermore implementing new technologies also requires rapid, effective training and retraining programmes for all educational personnel in technical and vocational education. In the face of limited resources, close collaboration is needed between industrial enterprises implementing new technologies in their work, on the one hand, and the technical education institutions, on the other.

The need for change

The traditional assumption that initial education will serve a lifelong career of professional work is no longer tenable. New technology demands the teaching of new science and engineering concepts and applications, and the pace and implementation of technological change require frequent changes in courses and curricula.

The Berlin Congress insisted on the need to base lifelong education on a solid foundation of general education (including basic sciences and mathematics), followed by broad technical education and training, in order to permit future adaptation to new professional profiles resulting from technological change.

The quantitative and qualitative progress of science and technology, coupled with speed of change, has both macro-educational and micro-educational consequences for technical and vocational education. Micro-educational changes cover the subject matter of education, with greater prominence accorded to basic scientific and technological knowledge and the need for updating and retraining. Macro-educational change is concerned with the necessary development of lifelong educational activities.

Technical and vocational education must keep abreast of the changes in production methods resulting from scientific and technological progress and fundamental and applied research. The gap between countries undertaking research and development of new technology and those seeking to develop such activities is widening and can only be narrowed through international collaboration.

Scientific and technological progress also makes training programmes (including teaching methods) in technical and vocational education obsolete at an ever-increasing pace. To overcome this problem, lifelong learning requires increased co-operation between education systems and enterprises in industry, agriculture and the service sectors. Technical and vocational education development is bound up with the international division of technological production, not just with national economic policies. The social and technical skills developed through technical and vocational education are themselves reflections of the social and technical division of labour.

New technologies have reinforced the growing interdependence of different fields of knowledge, leading to the need for inter-disciplinary and cross-disciplinary studies. New technologies have also removed many of the traditional barriers of physics, mathematics, science, engineering, biology, psychology and sociology, leading to a situation in which people of diverse educational backgrounds have a very useful role to play in the inter-disciplinary field of information processing.

A new type of individual - the multi-skilled worker with a broad but profound knowledge of science, the humanities and society, a narrow specialization in one field and the ability to work along with other specialists for a common cause - can be expected to characterize post-industrial society. This individual would exemplify the type of education and training needed in future for a successful career. Thus the nature of jobs is being changed by the technological revolution, placing a threefold demand on the technical and vocational education system: (a) the need to upgrade the educational background of individuals to incorporate the emergence of a new body of knowledge; (b) the growing interdependence of new technologies leading to the need for broad-based cross-disciplinary education and training for all occupations; and (c) a continual upgrading of the responsibilities of lower levels of professional manpower facing much higher expected levels of competence than hitherto.

The pace of technological change makes teaching and training equipment become obsolete very rapidly. In some countries, industries try to alleviate this problem through donating new equipment to educational and training establishments, collaborating with teachers in course development and delivery, and developing their own specially tailored training and retraining programmes for new and existing employees.

Developing countries, where local industries cannot provide such solutions to the problems brought by rapid technological change, require international assistance. In the future, many technological breakthroughs will continue to be made first in industry and will reach the education sector only after their initial development, assimilation and marketing. As a consequence, the teaching/training establishment will always be technologically behind the industry in some respects. The education sector, both in developing and developed countries, must find a solution to this problem in order to minimize the divergence between technical and vocational provision and industrial practice.

Technical and vocational education is a key factor in socio-economic development. A number of aspects of education and training will be affected in all countries by the recent technological advances and require some changes in education policy. There is an urgent need to improve the background of science and mathematics education at all levels. The updating of scientific and technical knowledge will need to be supported by remedial courses at technical school and university levels. There will also be a need for a wider scientific and technological base in education. Education programmes must be developed which anticipate and meet society’s needs and all students following vocational and technical courses will need to be trained to learn and study independently. Since much of the new knowledge is found in industry, collaboration between education and industry is needed to develop a systematized continuing education programme for the benefit of both professionals in industry and teachers in education. Three basic policy changes are required to meet the challenge of these demands: (a) the science and technology background of all students entering technical and vocational education must be improved; (b) students must be given a broad background through training in a specialist field coupled with sound knowledge in related fields of science, engineering and social science; and (c) emphasis must be placed on training in self-learning techniques and access to continuing education, as well as simulation-based training.

Self-reliance in new technology is becoming increasingly important to national economies. But the pace of technological change, the accelerating modernization and automation of industrial technology, and the development of capital-intensive rather than labour-intensive agricultural methods are potential barriers to development. In order to overcome them, the technical and vocational education system of each country must be capable of producing the necessary manpower to meet its current and projected levels of technological advance.

Although upgrading and retraining have always been an integral part of on-the-job training in industrialized countries, the task is often restricted to public education systems in developing countries, due to a lack of adequate facilities in local industry. But this updating and retraining is often beyond the capacity of the fledgling technical and vocational education system of the developing country concerned. Adequate human and capital resources for absorption, adaptation and transfer of technology are often lacking, which leads to a gradual deterioration of the quality and international competitiveness of their industrial products. The enormity of the task of upgrading and retraining can only be appreciated when it is realized that rapid technological changes are made simultaneously on numerous fronts such as manufacturing, communications, transport, agriculture, environmental control, service industries, games and entertainment, and education. In addition, the useful half-life of many new products and processes may stretch only a few years. The problem is worsened by the shortage of teachers competent in emerging technologies, a serious concern for developing countries. Future educational policies should address the need to cover new areas of occupation in the rural and service sectors through formal and non-formal modes. The options available to each learner over 16 years for pursuing courses of varying duration and certification in post-basic education must be increased and programmes made more relevant to the current and future trends of society.

Summary

The implications of rapid scientific and technological progress appear to be that the gap between the developed and the developing countries is widening, requiring international co-operation and support for developing countries if they are to enjoy the advantages of the technological revolution. While no country can be self-reliant in this technological revolution, self-reliance in education and training must remain a cornerstone of policy for all developing countries; foreign education is not only expensive, it is based on models which may not be appropriate to a specific country’s own development needs.

Some developing countries which have expanded their technical and vocational education have found that their labour markets have been unable to absorb the extra workforce that has been trained. Education models in developing countries must provide training for self-employment and entrepreneur-ship within technical and vocational education. Similarly, the standards of technical and vocational education must be raised to meet the growing demands for a higher level of knowledge in science, mathematics and information technology.

All countries need to: (a) improve the basic science and technology background of school children; (b) introduce inter-disciplinary and cross-disciplinary courses at vocational, technical and higher education levels; (c) introduce simulated environments for specific training; and (d) develop computer-assisted interactive learning sequences in major fields. Simultaneously, the countries must: (a) overcome shortages of both teachers and training materials; (b) generate and adapt software packages for their own national/cultural needs; (c) forecast local manpower and technology needs; (d) develop the capacity to absorb some extra workforce; and (e) learn from the experience of other countries in technology management, employment generation, marketing and control. Finally, international organizations should help developing countries in teacher training, in upgrading equipment, in preparing software and in forecasting future development.

3. Quantitative expansion


Within the context of a world undergoing a technological revolution, a number of common trends in technical and vocational education across Unesco Member States can be identified and discussed.

Expansion of technical and vocational education

From 1970 to 1980 enrolments in formal technical and vocational education rose by 45 per cent, as against 39 per cent for general secondary education (see Appendices A and B). Enrolments in formal technical and vocational education numbered 24.3 million in 1980.

There has also been an average annual increase during the ten years to 1985 in enrolments in part-time study, against an average annual increase of 2.5 per cent in formal secondary education. This indicates a trend towards greater use of continuing education, giving a more flexible response to changing demands.

Worldwide, the period 1970-84 saw a quantitative increase in technical and vocational education. Two obstacles to the growth of technical and vocational education are the lower status often accorded it and inadequate resources for training facilities.

Technical and vocational education requires a more adequate infrastructure and facilities and more specialized teachers than does general education. Nevertheless, some progress has been made in policy formation for technical and vocational education; while the rapid technological progress and changes in the labour market require constant adjustment of the system and closer co-operation between the education, economic and labour authorities.

Technical and vocational education has expanded in both the industrialized and the developing countries through: (a) the introduction of elements of technical and vocational education into general education; (b) the implementation of practical work, developing productive and employable skills in general education programmes (the vocationalization of general education); and (c) the assimilation of components of technical and vocational education that appeared earlier in secondary education, into post-secondary education.

Trends in subject matter and course content have shown an increasing diversification as a result of the growing concern to develop a better relationship between technical and vocational education and the demands of the world of work. Yet the high cost of technical and vocational education and the need to strengthen the links between technical and vocational education and industry remain problems, while the reform of general education to include elements of technical subjects in the curricula has been achieved in many countries.

In some countries, although education structures have been improved, barriers still exist between technical and vocational education and general education, leading to the need for more open, flexible systems. The lack of learning materials still affects the quality of the teaching and learning process. There is still a need for greater emphasis on the development of the learner’s creative abilities. The role of teachers in technical and vocational education and their training is a crucial issue, particularly in view of the rapid technological changes, which have necessitated an acceleration of in-service training to update and upgrade technical and vocational education teachers. This is particularly true for the high percentage of untrained teachers in practical subjects. However, a trend towards competency-based modular instructional techniques, allowing continuous in-service training, day release and the use of modern technology, may offer a solution in the future.

Increased participation of girls and women in technical and vocational education

Rapid economic and social development requires greater participation of women in economic activity. Legislative moves have helped to remove discrimination in employment. Although many countries’ legislation provides equal access to education, women still require more equality of access to regular and advanced technical and vocational training and education. The relative growth of female enrolments in technical and vocational education was greater than that of males in the period 1970-80 (5.4 per cent as against 4.5 per cent); these global percentages, which appear reasonably satisfactory, disguise a number of sub-trends that are perhaps less satisfactory. A closer analysis of regional and global statistics reveals that more girls tend to discontinue or drop out of primary education at an earlier age than boys. For those who do go on to secondary education, there is much greater equality of performance but the percentage of females in the total enrolment is less than in the early primary grades. This has resulted in some girls entering occupations that demand a less thorough grounding in general education, science, mathematics and technology unless they have received some specialized secondary education. This is reflected in the high rate of girls’ enrolments in such subject areas as domestic science, commercial/secretarial, health, craft skills or the service sector. This is not due solely to the students’ own choice, but in many cases reflects parental influences and traditions. Existing data show a fairly consistent global pattern of female preponderance of enrolments in these fields, running in some cases as high as 95 per cent. Other disciplines have equally predominant male enrolments. (Appendix B gives details of the proportion of female students in technical and vocational education in countries throughout the world.)

Generally, equality of access to technical and vocational education has been translated into legal provision, but often not put into practice. In most Member States, legal provisions exist for the equal participation of women in technical and vocational education and in employment. However, many countries need special promotional measures to ensure the genuine equality of sexes.

Legal measures to encourage such participation require administrative steps such as maternity leave and grants, and the provision of nurseries and crèches. Guidance services are needed to modify outlooks and traditions, and to develop attitudes and behaviour conducive to women’s greater involvement in technical and vocational education and working life.

Unequal opportunities in vocational training and employment have been charted back to family traditions related to early childhood. In certain societies, the conservative role of teachers in disseminating and reinforcing such prejudice does nothing to improve the historical inequalities of opportunity.

To correct the attitudes and behaviour that discriminate unfairly between boys and girls, teachers and careers counsellors should direct girls away from traditional career options and role models, and keep parents informed about occupational opportunities for girls receiving technical and vocational education. The media could also assist this process by giving a positive emphasis to successful women in non-traditional occupations, promoting new role models for girls.

Careers guidance staff should be exposed to some work experience before exercising their profession, in order to experience the ways in which sexual harassment usually occurs.

Equality of educational opportunity, and of professional treatment and pay in working life, must become a constant concern of leaders and decision-makers at all levels.

4. Democratization of technical and vocational education and social progress

The rapid growth of scientific and technological development has made technical and vocational education a vitally important instrument in the education process, contributing to democratization and to social, cultural and economic development. Technical and vocational education allows individuals to develop as full members of society and at the same time provides the basic prerequisite for further education.

The democratization of education means providing the largest possible number of people with access to education on the basis of their own merits and intellectual abilities. It does not necessarily lead to more equality in society as a whole; nevertheless it is a fundamental objective of educational policy in all Unesco Member States.

In some countries, technical and vocational education tends to make only a quantitative contribution to the democratization of education, until the pressure of economic and social needs raises its status and gives it a decisive role in this process. This contribution depends on the horizontal and vertical linkages between technical and vocational education and general education and, more fundamentally, it depends on the place of technical and vocational education in the educational policies of each country. An important factor in economic progress, technical and vocational education contributes to the development of a skilled workforce and to social progress by training future citizens of the society.

The right to education and work is widely recognized, but its practical implementation is more problematic. One such problem is the status and social esteem accorded skilled workers and the general overemphasis on academic education.

The Unesco Revised Recommendation concerning Technical and Vocational Education has paved the way to providing a common approach in Unesco Member States, but its principles do not yet appear to have been realized on an international scale.

The contribution of technical and vocational education to the democratization of the education system as a whole depends on: (a) its place and status within the education system; (b) the equivalence of technical and vocational education and general education; and (c) the social appreciation of technical and vocational education and of manual and vocational work as a whole. Technical and vocational education must become an integral part of a system of lifelong education, in which barriers between different types of education, employment and society are removed. At present, the choice of academic or technical and vocational education patterns (officially made according to aptitude) is often socially determined.

Equivalent initial education for both academic and technical and vocational education is not enough; there must be equivalence in the final examination and equality of access to post-secondary education in order to eliminate the discrimination between these two forms of education. This equivalence must also include the equal acceptance by society of those who have followed academic and technical and vocational education. The integration of technical and vocational education into all levels of general and lifelong education requires adequate financial resources and qualified staff, often exceeding those provided for academic education.

One basic problem is access to technical and vocational education, combined with the second-rate status often accorded to this type of education and its graduates.¹ A further problem for technical and vocational education derives from the fact that it is often a terminal type of education which does not allow access to higher education. Reforms in the education system for democratization must, if they are to succeed, be accompanied by envisaging employment opportunities. It is therefore necessary to prepare people, particularly young people, for both gainful employment and self-employment, or entrepreneurship.

1. See: International Congress on the Development and Improvement of Technical and Vocational Education, Berlin, German Democratic Republic, 1987, Final Report, Paris, Unesco, 1987. (ED.87/CONF.401/COL.15; ED.87/CONF.401/8.)

Education for vocation and work is a basic prerequisite for the majority of the population of each country and the provision of a sufficient number of training places is therefore of great importance to each society. Provision must correspond to the social requirements of the vocational qualification structure, which in turn must meet the future national economic requirements. Consequently, the development of technical and vocational education systems generally should correspond to the stage of economic development of each country. But a major problem in many developing and economically developed countries is that they cannot guarantee the democratization of education, namely the equal right of each young and older member of society to learn a vocation and work within it.

The democratization of education requires recognition both of the status of technical and vocational education in society and of technical and vocational skills as part of the necessary skills for gainful employment and active participation in social life. Equivalence in employment and further study opportunities for graduates of both technical and vocational education and academic education, and access to all types of education without discrimination, particularly technical and vocational education, are also vital. In order to cope with the problem of Job obsolescence resulting from scientific and technological progress, each individual needs a certain occupational versatility. This requires a broad-based technical vocational education and the vocationalization of general education, implying the acquisition of adequate knowledge in mathematics, the natural sciences, general technology and social science, as well as the acquisition of employable skills.

Since technical and vocational education aims at producing the qualified technical manpower to meet a country's economic needs, individual vocational interest must be matched to the needs of the economy and other social requirements. Short-term adjustments of technical and vocational education to socio-economic requirements and its isolation from the employment market should be avoided.

School has the task of imparting sound and relatively stable basic knowledge that reflects the latest scientific and technological discoveries. Technical and vocational education must also reflect these achievements. As a result of scientific and technological progress, lifelong education and qualification processes become a social standard, and both education at school and initial technical and vocational education increasingly lose their 'final character'. Thus scientific and technological progress requires the integration of all parts of the education system.

An efficient technical and vocational education policy therefore requires close co-ordination among those responsible for general education, technical and vocational education, and the economy. The close linkage of technical and vocational education with industrial, commercial and agricultural enterprises also contributes to the improvement of the organization and development of technical and vocational education. This type of education contributes to the democratization of education through long-term planning.

Technical and vocational education systems throughout the world are quite similar in curricula and content, sharing similar approaches. Other criticisms are that technical and vocational schools are independent and unaccountable, that new technologies are seen as tending to interfere and obstruct the usual routines of some schools and that certain schools often strenuously resist change.

The right to education should be combined with the right to work. The right to work cannot be secured if the right to education is not put into practice, which requires: (a) the recognition of technical and vocational education for each member of society as a basic human right; (b) free technical and vocational education and adequate material help for needy learners; (c) the equal position and status of technical and vocational education and general (academic) education within the education system; and (d) the organization of the content of technical and vocational education so that it is as comprehensive as possible and allows access to other fields of the education system at all levels. Furthermore, a too early and irreversible choice of career, or decision on the educational pattern, must be avoided and learners should be provided with an opportunity to participate both in the efficient organization of the training process and in evaluating the effectiveness of the training programme. Technical and vocational education must be linked both to practice and to modern working processes, and a positive public attitude towards productive work and the acquisition of employable skills must be engendered.

Although many of these principles can be applied only step by step, particularly in developing countries, technical and vocational education can help lower the costs of the entire education process and contribute to the development of the national economy by undertaking income-generating projects as part of the training. Technical and vocational education should contribute to international understanding and the preservation of peace through the selection of projects that both promote the preservation of the environment and also concentrate on the production of tools and necessities for peaceful co-existence and mutual co-operation.

The labour market requires individuals to be efficiently trained in order to obtain employment, which creates an imbalance between the training requirements of the education system and demands for required labour skills. To meet the needs for skilled technical manpower, technical and vocational education should raise its own standards, thereby enhancing the status of its graduates and improving the development of society's human and economic resources.

Human resource development depends on the technical and vocational education system, which is an essential element of this development in that it trains people for employment. Human resource development must start with the planning of a centralized human resource policy aiming, first, to harmonize the work of the various ministries and institutions responsible for educational and training activities and, second, to devise common standards for various curricula and for assessing results.

The harmonious development of human resources also requires a socio-economic balance among the various skills necessary for the development of each country. This should be based on an analysis of the professional skills required for economic development. Socially useful skills are relevant to the whole range of activities and forms of production. Methodological difficulties of skill definition have often led to an over-concentration of skills relevant only to the modern production sector. With the increasing obsolescence of traditional skills and as a result of scientific and technological progress, technical and vocational education is essentially seeking to find the best possible balance between the demands of employment, stated at a particular time, and the number of graduates of technical and vocational education, also taking into account potential changes in the world of employment. Technical and vocational education planning should not be limited by narrow definitions of vacant jobs, but should reflect the requirements of multiple skills with a degree of versatility and adaptability.

Another important aspect of human resource development is the role of technical and vocational education institutions in strengthening links between the education system and industry. In this context, the 'sandwich course', mixing periods of educational activities with periods of practical work experience, has proved to be a successful model for implementation.

Technical and vocational education also plays an important role in community development by improving the well-being of the local population and building up a reservoir of skilled manpower to meet the needs of local enterprises. This micro-social contribution of technical and vocational education to human resource development is becoming increasingly important, as an increasing number of links between technical and vocational education and local enterprises are forged.

The relevance of theoretical knowledge and practical skills imparted by the programmes of technical and vocational education depends on the knowledge and experience of those responsible for education. Students' knowledge and practical experience can be increased through links between technical and vocational education institutions and industry and commerce, providing facilities for in-service programmes which give ample opportunity for training and updating in a real work context.

Although large companies and centralized control still dominate in many developed countries, there is a trend towards small production units, delegation of control, decentralization and a flexible workforce with multitransferable skills. At the same time, developing countries which are currently becoming urbanized are frequently concerned to train a multi-skilled workforce to meet their changing labour market needs, which may result from the establishment of large-scale industries. This has implications for technical and vocational education in terms of both curriculum content and teaching methods. Some countries have developed curricula linked with periodic evaluation and programme revision relevant to changing industrial and commercial needs.

Co-operation between education and industrial enterprises increases the relevance of technical and vocational education to industry and provides a good opportunity to meet required industrial standards even at training stage. This co-operation gives technical and vocational education teachers the opportunity to update their knowledge or skills to meet current practice, often linked with access to new technologies. The industrial enterprises also benefit from such co-operation which: (a) offers them a chance to make a preliminary selection of future employees from among the students on work placements; and (b) gives trainees the opportunity to obtain and improve their scientific and technical knowledge and skills during their training, thereby producing a better-quality workforce for the future.

Technical and vocational teachers in the educational institutions attached to industrial enterprises also benefit from this collaboration, through familiarizing themselves with: (a) changes and innovations occurring within local industries; (b) the extent to which the industrial enterprises require traditional skills, and what new skills are required; (c) the nature and extent of usability of special training facilities within the industries; and (d) the actual training and retraining requirements of current and future employees. This gives them an opportunity to update the curriculum so that it is relevant to actual needs. The updating of a programme of study is easier when it is presented in modular form, or as self-study printed and computer programs.

Modular programmes of study and distance-learning materials have the added advantage of allowing flexible time for self-learning and for rapid responses to some specific and new training needs. However, there is a problem in developing countries where learning material in local languages is not available and there is often a lack of equipment. The advantages and relevance of modules to the needs of industrial enterprises have been highlighted in many countries, which have oriented their training systems towards a student-centred behavioural objective approach.

Many educational and training institutions are able to improve access to training in new information technologies. It is in the interest of their countries to use this ability to improve the employable skills of those who otherwise have little chance in the labour market. Technical and vocational education could respond better to the labour-market demands by adopting a three-pronged strategy: (a) improve and accelerate the flow of information about job prospects, work organization and training needs from employers to the technical and vocational education institutions; (b) decentralize decision-making regarding curricula content to regional and local training authorities, or to individual institutions; and (c) encourage schools to establish closer co-operation with various industrial and business enterprises in order to meet their training needs.

Instead of being simply regarded as 'course providers', educational institutions must become 'flexible learning services providers'.

Schools should still play an important role in new technology training, concentrating on those areas of training activities for which they are better equipped than enterprises. These would include: (a) meeting the training needs of small and medium-sized industrial or business enterprises; (b) providing trainees with solid theoretical knowledge and the basic concepts for the use of new technologies; and (c) stressing equality of access to education and training for new information technology skills.

Industrial and commercial enterprises are under constant pressure to upgrade their workforce. As a result, they require rapid solutions to various specific training needs which technical and vocational education institutions frequently cannot provide. Company-based training can be broadly demand-oriented or supply-oriented. Demand-oriented training relates directly to the company's own efficiency criteria, that is, to specific problems faced by the enterprise. Supply-oriented training relates to a complete training programme within the enterprise which goes beyond specialized training and includes more general education linked to the company's strategic concern to enhance workers' creativity, adaptability and ability to cope with continuous change.

The adoption of supply-oriented training by various enterprises is leading to the growth of the 'learning company'. Continuous education, training and retraining activities contribute towards building a strong corporate culture that guarantees, simultaneously, the commercial success of the company and the development of its employees, increasing their job satisfaction.

In brief, 'learning companies' consider further in-house training as vital for innovation. They aim to train their personnel so they can adapt to changing work content and requirements and flexibility in staff deployment. They attach the desire to learn and developing problem awareness, the ability to co-operate, coherent thinking and creativity. These non-technical skills are considered key requirements for keeping up-to-date with rapid technological development. They also integrate social objectives since the training aims to make employees more receptive to technological innovation, emphasizing practical training and the utilization of modern teaching and learning methods.

Many enterprises have neither the resources nor the commitment to provide the type of training available in these larger 'learning companies'. Smaller firms, for example, are generally dependent on outside training assistance. Many are reluctant to invest in training because of their fear of losing trained staff, lack of resources and the inability to organize training courses. But the rapid pace of technological change means that enterprises must innovate quickly, which requires a rapid and flexible training response. Technical and vocational education must operate within this context. Schools and training institutions should respond to this need by making training accessible and using techniques such as open learning and distance learning.

Technical and vocational education institutions should also concentrate on: assisting present and future employees to acquire those basic or future-orientated skills which cannot be taught in the firm; providing integrated service to small companies that encompasses training with other services; and collaborating with small firms to attract highly qualified young workers.

PART TWO: CURRENT STRATEGIES


5. Current issues and problems

To improve the effectiveness of technical and vocational education, socio-economic changes, as well as developments in industry and commerce resulting from rapid technological and scientific changes, must be considered. Technical and vocational education must respond quickly to all demands placed upon education systems, to provide students and other new client groups with new training programmes geared towards new patterns of employment, skills and knowledge.

If technical and vocational training is to offer appropriate up-to-date training, relevant to the specific needs of industry and commerce, teaching staff should be able to identify these needs. This means modifying current courses and devising new courses which meet local, regional and national requirements. Many countries need to train their technical and vocational staff, developing the necessary skills to identify various training needs. Some countries have already begun improving technical and vocational education, concentrating on: improving planning systems, especially manpower planning, co-ordinating general and technical education at various levels, remedying previous tendencies that favoured the modern urban sector to the detriment of the rural agricultural sector, avoiding following foreign models blindly, co-ordinating planning and execution between education and training institutions and industrial and agricultural enterprises, paying attention to critical shortages in crucial areas and the identification of remedial measures, legislating for norms and standards for technical and vocational teaching personnel, and enhancing the catchment potential of the education systems, especially at secondary-education level where most technical and vocational inputs occur. In a few countries, national policy and planning are linked with regional analysis of requirements of technical and vocational teachers.

Technical and vocational teachers need to maintain up-to-date knowledge of their subject content and possess the necessary skills to teach successfully. Knowledge is often best obtained through links with industrial, commercial and agricultural enterprises which also provide information on the changing needs of employees. A number of countries are now actively increasing such links and at the Berlin Congress many countries recognized the need to do more in this area and expressed their concern to improve technical and vocational education. Teaching staff who are aware of the needs of a flexible workforce are in a better position to implement appropriate training programmes.

In some countries, government policy is to give directions to such programmes. Education policies and technical and vocational education systems are readjusted to meet national development needs such as modernizing agricultural systems and launching new industrial activities. This in turn leads to the expansion of technical and vocational education, building new, well-equipped technical-training institutions and vocational schools and implementing short-course training activities for updating employees’ knowledge and skills.

Some countries also recognize that they need to reduce dependence on foreign technicians and skilled workers as well as regional co-operation, aiming to create a common base for the development of technical manpower. Nevertheless, few have recognized that centrally directed programmes are more effective if they concentrate on local needs.

Another task for technical and vocational education is to develop entrepreneurial skills in craft areas for people who want to become self-employed. This has been a tradition in a number of countries, while it is becoming a new priority for others; it is often linked with providing people with increased leisure and recreational time. There is little evidence that countries respond to the requirements placed upon technical and vocational education to meet the diverse needs of the trainees. Some workers require training and retraining related to industrial and commercial requirements and rapid technological change, while others require traditional technical and vocational crafts skills.

In many industrialized countries, the development of resource materials, computer programs and interactive video (the combined use of computers and video tapes) provides teaching and learning materials tailored to meet specific individual requirements. The use of individualized distance learning is not yet widely spread.

Although many countries have recognized the advantages of linking technical and vocational education with industry and commerce, a number of countries find practical difficulties in interchanging teaching staff with industrial personnel and providing students with direct experience of work in industry during their study. Possible solutions to these problems are: (a) to adapt technical and vocational education institutions so as to function as community and cultural institutions; (b) to encourage extending decision-making for education to include representatives of employers and the workforce; and (c) to encourage inculcation of manual skills through work activities as part of general education. Technical and vocational education could also: (a) offer support to small enterprises and co-operatives and promote self-employment; (b) provide joint and integrated vocational training and community development programmes, especially in rural areas; and (c) promote the development of new methodologies for acquiring skills and experience such as self-training, programmed instruction, vocational training centres (mobile and static) and the use of radio, television and audio and video cassettes.

A recent trend in programme planning tends to involve specialists other than simply educationalists in creating a multi-disciplinary approach. Another trend is to see what knowledge and skills are common to different jobs and what qualifications are needed. Five factors illustrate the increased importance attached to the planning and development of technical and vocational education training programmes. They are applied differently in various countries but have something in common. First, consideration should be given to the responsibilities of the central, regional and local authorities, and even of teachers, in the preparation of curricula. Some countries have basic central programmes which are supplemented and adapted according to local needs. Greater attention should be paid to integrating on-the-job technical and vocational training in education establishments. The frequency of revision of education programmes must keep pace with technological changes. Technical education curricula should create the foundations for the lifelong education of workers. The modular approach would appear to be the most suitable for achieving such development. Curriculum planning is an integral part of general, technical and vocational education plans in a number of countries, in the preparation of their strategic plans. These factors illustrate some of the ways in which countries respond to the demands placed on the labour market by technological progress.

6. New strategies in technical and vocational education


The demands placed on technical and vocational education programmes vary from country to country and in some cases within countries. These variables often depend on numerous interrelated factors, one of which is technological progress, which changes the needs of industry and commerce. Other factors influencing technical and vocational education strategies are: (a) economic development, which influences the resources needed to maintain and improve technical and vocational education; (b) social development, which changes the climate of the labour market at local, regional and national level; and (c) demographic changes, which influence the supply of skilled manpower on the labour market and the rate of recruitment of trainees in the technical and vocational education system.

All these factors place demands on each country to provide the appropriate programmes of technical and vocational education; demands which relate to rapid technological development and its variations are often in conflict with the need for economy in the cost of providing such education.

A number of countries have undertaken various actions to meet the demands for skilled technical manpower such as: the vocationalization of general education and its diversification; the provision of technical and vocational education at a higher level on the basis of general education, leading to the upgrading of the status and quality of technical and vocational education; the continuation of general education up to the end of the compulsory education period before going on to specialized technical and vocational education; and a trend towards the modularization of courses. The use of open and distance learning and increased use of new technologies, such as computer-assisted training and the use of simulators and interactive video in teaching and learning are also important, as is adapting course content to the reality of the world of work. The latter implies an increased involvement of specialists from industrial enterprises in the planning and implementation of training courses. Finally, access to technical and vocational education can be increased and short and part-time programmes of study provided according to local needs. This last is particularly important in relation to the adaptability of technical and vocational education to meet the needs for a skilled, flexible technical workforce.

In some countries, the development of modular-based courses at various levels has led to the decentralization of the design of curriculum materials, presented in modular form. Each module often stands on its own and can be designed to meet specific objectives, responding quickly to particular needs. This system allows a flexible learning approach and provides opportunities for updating knowledge and skills and for retraining, which enables technical and vocational education to respond quickly and appropriately to the changing needs of industry and commerce. However, the usefulness and wide applications of modular materials have yet to be recognized and utilized in many countries.

The need for flexibility and integration of theory and practice through appropriate learning and teaching methods, so as to meet the needs of industry and commerce, is recognized by many countries. However, in some cases, this ‘integration’ of theory and practice is achieved by the use of the same teacher for theory lessons and practical training.

Many technical and vocational education programmes include more direct work experience in the course of study. Furthermore, some commercial companies and industrial enterprises employing new technologies recognize that they must assume greater responsibility in technical and vocational education. However, obstacles and difficulties remain. For example, work placements are not always available; in other cases, there is a lack of time and appropriate expertise for the required planning, supervision and assessment of trainees’ work in these industrial and commercial enterprises. One possible way forward could be inter-company co-operation for setting up training centres. The co-operation of companies in taking students for on-the-job training could be encouraged by governments, using political pressure. Experienced qualified personnel should also be available to support students’ training. Technical standards and regulations should be known and observed by the students.

Countries generally recognize the need to adapt technical and vocational education to rapidly changing situations and requirements. To meet this need, there is a trend towards the vocationalization of general education at lower levels (primary and lower secondary) with an emphasis on teaching a variety of skills. Education is becoming more responsive to the social and economic requirements of modern society. At the higher levels of technical and vocational education, there is also a tendency, in response to the increasing demands for higher and more diversified skill levels for the world of work, to include basic elements of general education. This upgrades the status and quality of technical and vocational education.

Fully proficient technicians and tradesmen, for example, ought to know how to handle a range of new types of equipment and understand the properties of new materials. To attain these skills, a longer exposure to basic principles is required compared to a few decades ago and this can now take place either in vocationally orientated general education or in technical streams. Later entry into technical and vocational education enables a greater concentration on the practical aspects of training in workshops and laboratories or through industrial attachment, and has a positive overall effect on the quality of technical and vocational education.

However, both developing and industrialized countries face some common problems. Traditions in education systems are hard to change and large-scale changes in technical and vocational education need much time, money, energy and ‘new’ teachers. Also, in some developing countries institutionally based programmes do not adequately meet the needs of rural, tribal and remote areas. Many African states, for example, feel that technical and vocational education should be geared towards irrigation, and rural and agricultural development. A number of countries have begun to meet such needs by using distance learning. There is also a growing recognition of the need to use electronic media as a means of overcoming these problems.

7. Planning, administration and management


The success of technical and vocational education depends on the quality of staff and programme and on its planning, administration and management at national, regional and local level. At macro-level, technical and vocational education planners forecast the outputs of the education system. An essential instrument of technical and vocational education planning is future-orientated analysis taking into account present and future manpower needs related to the socio-economic requirements of the world of work.

Many countries have already initiated the development of technical and vocational manpower information systems which accurately categorize job requirements and manpower needs at regional and national level. Some countries have thereby secured better co-ordination among their ministries, contributing to balanced growth. Some progress has been achieved over the last ten years, particularly in collecting statistical data and co-ordinating planning, administration and management. In some countries, national bureaux (with an overall task of implementing government policy, promoting research, curriculum development, allocating funds, and so on) have improved their role in technical and vocational education by establishing separate centres staffed by personnel with the appropriate expertise, ability and leadership qualities.

Responses to the Unesco consultation of Member States indicate that many countries’ long-term planning has involved co-operation between technical and vocational education and the ministries for social and economic affairs.

In many countries technical and vocational education has been the subject of legislation which has led to its greater effectiveness and enhanced status. Some countries have implemented new systems and structures which have supported the improvement and development of technical and vocational education. Many countries have or are adopting decentralized systems of administration. In some cases regional and/or local governments are given greater responsibility to develop appropriate policies according to their specific needs. Some countries have recognized the need for decentralized regional administration of technical and vocational education, concentrating on: planning technical and vocational education, manpower assessment, staff appraisal and development, programme and institution evaluation and industrial liaison. In some cases these tasks are performed by the appropriate professional personnel.

For some years the trend in industrialized countries has been towards greater co-operation between education and the productive sectors of the economy at the structural and conceptual level rather than simply attempting to react post facto to changes in the labour market. This has been achieved through various forms of co-operation between the education institutions, industry, agriculture and education planners and has led to more effective socio-economic-based approaches to manpower planning, with an emphasis on general human resource development rather than ad hoc planning.

The decentralization of educational administration in many countries has been in both hierarchical and geographical terms. It is assisted by new, effective, rapid communication and information technology.

Many developing countries have reported that technical and vocational education programmes have been widened in response to national economic development policies, with a greater emphasis on rural development, health services, transport and communications in agriculture, food production and social services. In the last fifteen years, crafts and fine arts have been incorporated into technical and vocational education systems. With growing tourist industries in a number of countries, traditional craft products and certain related skills have begun to take on a commercial and greater developmental role. They can potentially bring employment to rural areas. Markets in industrialized countries are open to these products through new marketing techniques, quality control and cheaper air freight. At the same time, new skills are required such as packaging, quality control, distribution and selling. This has also led to the decentralization of technical and vocational education to the respective areas of administration, programme co-ordination and control of technical and vocational education at regional, local and in some cases institutional level.

‘The organization and administration of establishments, facilitated by the skill of their managerial staff, should enjoy a degree of autonomy so that these establishments can develop their initiatives freely.’1

　　1. International Congress on the Development and Improvement of Technical and Vocational Education, Berlin, 　　German 　Democratic Republic, 1987, Main Working Document, p. 19, para. 56, Paris, Unesco, 1987. 　　(ED.87/CONF.401/1/COL.10; 　　　　ED.87/CONF.401/2.)

In some countries, national policy favours granting partial or full autonomy to establishments in academic, administrative and financial matters, governed by a Board of the Institution. The members of the boards are representatives of various relevant groups, particularly from industry and commerce. This delegation of authority and governing power promotes innovation, change and the appropriate development of technical and vocational education. In addition, the more ‘autonomy’ institutions are given, the more they become aware of their responsibilities. However, because of the changes and innovations which some experiments introduce into the curriculum or the methods of student assessment, a co-ordinating machinery outside the institutions, at regional or national level, is necessary for policy matters.

Internationally, some administrative and management processes are also changing. Plans, programmes of action, work plans and performance reviews are some of the strategies increasingly adopted to promote greater operational effectiveness and build capabilities at federal, state and institutional levels. There is a growing tendency to use new approaches, such as team-work, task forces, working groups, advisory and review committees for promoting participation, consultation and commitment of personnel. New approaches adopted in the planning, administration and management of technical and vocational education include greater concern for the task as well as for the people, devolution of authority accompanied by increased accountability, performance review and management approaches in problem-solving and decision-making. However, a number of countries still face problems in the planning, administration and management of their technical and vocational education systems. These range from inaccurate forecasting of manpower needs, lack of existing appropriate standards in job qualifications, lack of adequate financial resources to meet the basic costs of technical and vocational education and lack of co-ordination between various departments and agencies responsible for planning to inadequate arrangements for evaluating various policies and plans at the time of their implementation.

It is recognized that in both industrialized and developing countries there is an increased need for lifelong education and open systems as well as greater support for co-operation between education and industrial enterprises.

All these problems require more appropriate management, administration and co-ordination. It is obvious that appropriately trained managerial and administrative staff are essential to maintain and improve the efficiency of technical and vocational education.

8. Preparation of key personnel for technical and vocational education


The key personnel responsible for the planning, management and administration of technical and vocational education can be divided into a number of categories. At the central level, there are high-level administrators responsible for policy development and implementation and education planners, curriculum development specialists, education researchers and those responsible for course validation and programme standards. At the regional level, we find administrators with delegated authority for policy development and implementation, and inspectors whose function it is to conduct supervision of institutions and assess teachers’ and students’ performance as related to curricula. At the local level are managers and administrators of technical and vocational institutions and department heads. Another important group of key personnel includes those responsible for training technical and vocational teachers, and those concerned with training managers and administrators.

In order to meet the need for qualified educational administration and management personnel, some countries have specialized staff colleges and national institutes for the training of educational planners and administrators. In most cases, attendance is voluntary and is not based on special national policy or requirements. In countries which have a national policy for the required qualification of administrators, it is usually the same pattern as for teachers. However, in both industrialized and developing countries, training in education management and administration is still in its infancy and central-level administrators often do not have a comprehensive understanding of the objectives of technical and vocational education.

At local level, on-the-job training of managers and administrators is often informal, takes place within institutions and rarely includes the basic principles of management and administration. Training for these key personnel should cover aspects of management, human relations and practical knowledge of socio-economic cycles as well as educational issues.

In most countries, technical and vocational teacher training faces the same problem as the technical and vocational institutions: the inability to replace equipment which becomes obsolete in the context of rapid technological advances, as a result of which technical and vocational teachers are ill-prepared to meet the needs of their students and the new requirements of industrial and commercial enterprises. Some countries have found solutions through co-operation between advanced industries and training establishments involving:

(a) use of industrial equipment by trainers and educators on company premises;

(b) implementation of co-operative, joint programmes of research and development involving company staff, educators, trainers and teacher trainees; and

(c) donation of specific equipment to the training institution by industrial and commercial enterprises.

For developing countries with embryonic industrial infrastructures, such local collaboration cannot easily be found. However, many multinational companies have recognized developing countries’ special need to absorb and adapt the newly emerging technologies. Another problem for developing countries is the absence of national training institutions for key administrative personnel and technical and vocational teachers. This has led to a reliance on courses provided in industrialized countries. While this has the advantage of leading to international links, various countries report disadvantages, such as: (a) a reluctance on the part of those trained abroad to return to their own country at the end of their training; (b) the training received abroad does not necessarily transfer directly to the country of the trainees; and (c) training in another country does not contribute directly to the development of national capabilities for conducting research related to technical and vocational education in the country of the trainees.

The training of key personnel is an important factor in providing effective technical and vocational education. International co-operation is mutually beneficial to all countries involved. Nevertheless, each individual country needs personnel who have been trained within the country and possess a detailed knowledge of the country’s requirements and constraints in respect of its specific socio-economic, demographic, geographical, industrial and rural situation.

It would seem appropriate for all countries to undertake appropriate legislative action to set up central training institutions and release staff for appropriate training in order to improve their technical and vocational education.

9. Vocational guidance and counselling


Over the last ten years there has been a growing concern to provide international programmes of study in the field of vocational guidance and counselling which are tailored to meet the overall needs of industry and commerce and some specific requirements. In order to do this, it is necessary to take into account each student’s existing knowledge, skills, expertise, ability and current and future needs, and then to offer flexible programmes, which meet individual students’ needs and, at the same time, the current and future needs of industry and commerce.

In a number of countries, there is a growing trend to provide educational and vocational counselling and guidance aimed at directing students to appropriate learning opportunities within such flexible systems as bridging courses, modularization and self-study. Students are also guided towards their selection of modules and self-study, and student counselling continues during the programme of study. Further advice is offered on career opportunities, retraining necessitated by the technological changes within particular firms, and career changes related to community or family requirements. Many countries view vocational guidance and counselling as a continuous process and a vital element of lifelong education. In a number of countries, vocational guidance is the responsibility of both education and labour authorities, requiring close collaboration between them.

Although there is a trend towards improving educational and vocational guidance and counselling, the Unesco consultation of Member States indicated that in some countries, vocational guidance is seen as instrumental in the existing dual education and vocational systems (a pattern found predominantly in industrialized countries), while in others, no guidance is seen to be needed at all.

In order to provide adequate guidance and counselling functions, the special vocational guidance centres’ personnel must be appropriately trained. Furthermore, all technical and vocational teaching staff must be aware of the availability of guidance and counselling in the programme areas which they teach. In some countries, vocational counselling is completely independent of and not linked to teaching and administration, while vocational guidance is provided by staff who are qualified in psychology. In other cases, student counselling is carried out by all teachers. The availability of trained personnel is a key element in the provision of adequate vocational and educational guidance and counselling.

At the Berlin Congress, it was suggested that Unesco, in collaboration with appropriate non-governmental organizations and professional societies, should undertake research into vocational guidance, develop model guidance software for vocational guidance, undertake studies of national guidance systems, promote the exchange of information and materials, produce a Technical and Vocational Education journal including materials on vocational guidance and establish guidelines for the development of educational and vocational guidance.

10. Instructional media for technical and vocational education


The advent of the information revolution and the introduction of information technology into all areas of national economies have led to considerable changes in production methods, occupational structures and skill requirements of the labour force. In addition, new training technologies and entirely new instructional media have been developed as a consequence of the impact of information technology. The impact of this technology on the education process has promoted: (a) the development of self-study and distance-learning programmes with open access for new clients and the remote student; (b) a move towards modularization and short blocks of study, utilizing resource-based learning; (c) linked computerized networks, offering easy access to training-programme knowledge and data as well as the opportunity of speedy updating of information; and (d) the emergence of increasingly effective and efficient administration and management systems of technical and vocational programmes as new and existing technologies converge.

Since there are different patterns of development in various countries going through differing rates of change, there is a need for different types of resource-based learning, particularly within technical and vocational education. As a result, resource-based learning may vary from the traditional utilization of resources, such as programme notes and handouts and simple visual aids, to newer, sometimes complex instructional systems, using self-study units, computer-based learning and interactive video learning.

Computer-assisted learning (CAL) was first envisaged in terms of informal rather than formal education, particularly in large industrial, banking and insurance companies where computers (mostly mainframe at that time) were available long before they were introduced into formal education. The importance of computer-managed learning (CML) and CAL as a method of instruction in technical and vocational education is recognized by many nations. It offers the advantages of greater use of self-paced/individual learning, immediate student feedback, increased availability of up-to-date information and reduced teaching load. Specific advantages of CAL recognized in many countries include: (a) use in simulators for embedded training; (b) increased flexibility of programmes of study; (c) access to different levels of input and learning speed through appropriate software; and (d) increased tutor guidance on an industrial basis linked to, first, accurate student monitoring and, second, detailed, accurate diagnosis of student achievements and needs by appropriate software.

However, the introduction of computers in technical and vocational education requires carefully structured, well-designed materials and the systematic, carefully planned production and distribution of software. Appropriately trained personnel as well as hardware compatibility and adequate maintenance are also necessary.

In addition to computer-based training, CAL, and linear and interactive video, recent developments in electronic networks and satellite broadcasting have an impact on technical and vocational education. The cost of implementing and maintaining systems which involve such technologies is often beyond the financial means of an institution, a region or, in some cases, a whole country. National-level co-operation and international collaboration help overcome some of the difficulties involved. Many countries are setting up educational media centres at state and regional levels for multi-media learning packages, educational films and video programmes, arranging for their mass production and distribution to technical and vocational education institutions. Some countries are also establishing learning resource centres in institutions which provide facilities for various types of software and hardware and for facilitating based learning.

In many Unesco Member States, the cost of initial investment and implementation of new technologies in technical and vocational education presents a difficulty. This problem is overcome by developing co-operative data-bases and CAL programmes in their resource centres. Such resource centres are well established in some industrialized countries and involve a number of institutions as well as regional, national and international networks. Developing countries now implementing CAL programmes have recognized the importance of teacher training in computer-based training, and CAL and CML programmes. Large-scale international co-operation in the area of technical teacher training is very valuable, assisting in: (a) the standardization of hardware systems and local networking to maximize benefits; and (b) the selection of appropriate software and training in software development as a function of the country’s own needs, and cultural and social background.

Those developing countries which introduce CAL need support in implementing the appropriate policies. Such policies could concentrate first at the lower levels of vocational education for quick results or at the higher vocational education levels to build a strong infrastructure. Similarly, the policy could start with CAL in one or two selected strategic sectors of vocational education, or in all sectors. In addition, coherent policies should be developed for creating computer literacy and computer awareness, training computer professionals, implementing the wide variety of applications of all new technologies and providing access to data-bases.

The computer can be used effectively as a self-learning tool, particularly in relation to lifelong continuing education programmes. The effective use of CAL to improve the quality of technical and vocational education depends on the establishment of appropriate infrastructures. Appropriate teacher training and teacher educators are central to developing this infrastructure. Only then will technical and vocational education be in a position to meet manpower needs in new emerging technologies and to enable people to use the computer as a valuable data-processing and communication tool.

Technical and vocational education institutions have a long history in the application of education technology. The last few decades have seen the availability of increasingly sophisticated visual aids, simulators and information retrieval techniques as well as the extensive use of photocopiers, audio and video tapes and cassettes, and computer laboratories. Their effective use varies considerably both within and between countries. Institutions have also learnt from earlier experience with some of these technologies that it is quite possible to waste considerable amounts of money by rushing over-enthusiastically into a new technology without sufficient consideration of its educational purpose and the costs associated with its use and maintenance.

The newer education technologies centre on television and computers, and on their combined use. Their effective use is subject to two major limitations. First, there is a dearth of good-quality courseware, whose production requires both time and considerable expertise and resources. A common estimate for computer software is well over one hundred (and sometimes several hundred) hours of development for one hour’s use of instructional material. The second limitation is the need for staff development programmes to train the teaching staff to use this technology. Both these limitations could be overcome, but only by commiting substantial funds and the use of effective mechanisms for sharing software materials.

Hypothetically, it would be possible for some outstanding teachers to prepare television programmes and computer packages to serve all the nation’s students at a very low cost per student. This would incorporate ‘production methods’ with reduced staffing costs. In such a system, education in any subject or occupation would soon become uniform and sterile, and eventually outdated. Vocational preparation is not merely a transmission of skills but the stimulus of inquiry and the development of a creative approach arising from interaction involving students, teachers and employers, as well as among the students themselves.

A particular concern in developing technical and vocational education curricula is the availability of the same equipment as used in industry. Students’ access to such equipment is essential if the curriculum is to keep pace with technological change. In this respect, the need for close links between educational institutions and industry is evident.

Many countries involved in the development of packaged and modular programmes of study have adopted a modular approach involving computerized data, video and other visual/graphic materials. The use of computers in the development of study programmes has many advantages. Their use in computer-assisted graphic design or the amendment, correction and production of curricula materials makes them powerful instruments for quick response to changing requirements, although such use of computers requires greater competence and self-confidence on the part Of teacher trainers. Computers can rapidly produce attractive training material and make alterations. Such materials can be produced in sufficient quantity for any given situation without delay and without depending on commercial or centralized printing.

The need for international co-operation in this field is recognized by developing countries, but the philanthropic export of software from well-meaning developed countries to the developing nations has often been counterproductive owing to the lack of effort to adapt the software and training materials to local economic, political and cultural conditions. Education software needs as much screening, adaptation and redevelopment in a new cultural context as does the technology itself. International co-operation and experience-sharing in information-processing is equally important to both developed and developing countries since the exchange of knowledge, experience, data-bases and communication as well as information has no geographical boundaries.

The information from various Member States shows some recognition of the work undertaken to use computers in technical and vocational education. At the same time, the value of traditional educational media is not overlooked. It is generally recognized that technical and vocational education, as a means of preparing young people for employment, must take into account the technological transformations occurring in the world of work. As was observed at the Berlin Congress, at central level, computers are used to improve planning and management and require integrated policies for equipment supply and staff training. At middle level, they assist in decision-making about education and in evaluating the education process. Computers have an impact on national evaluation procedures and lead to the harmonization of various procedures for evaluating students’ progress. At the micro-level, computer-assisted instruction (CAI) supports the work of teachers and is used throughout education, particularly in technical and vocational education; the use of computer-based programmes improves interactivity between teachers and students.

New media have already been introduced in one form or another in many nations. However, the impact of certain developments has yet to be realized in some countries. These developments cover, inter alia, new forms of telecommunication networks, extended linear and interactive video and audio recording technologies, and satellite broadcasting. In addition to these significant achievements of advanced technologies, the technical and vocational education systems will benefit in future from satellite technology, teleconference networks, international data-bases utilizing appropriate and inexpensive modems and microcomputers, laser print technology and electronic publishing, and electronic mail systems. The role of Unesco in stimulating, supporting and co-ordinating the initiatives of its Member States in these areas, which will lead to high-quality technical and vocational education on a global scale, will be significant.

Speakers at the Berlin Congress recognized Unesco’s role in providing supporting and advisory services to various nations and suggested that in future Unesco should: (a) organize international conferences and seminars relating to modern technologies; (b) promote and act as a clearing-house for the exchange of information among Member States; and (c) elaborate a series of technical recommendations to achieve compatibility between software and courseware developed for technical and vocational education.

11. Training technical teacher trainers


As indicated earlier, changes in employment opportunities, occupational shifts and technological advancements place increasing demands on technical and vocational education. Now, more than ever before, it is essential to ensure that technical and vocational education teachers possess appropriate, up-to-date knowledge and skills to meet the training needs of all students. This would help to meet all current and future requirements in the world of work.

Statistical data received from some countries indicated that they saw staff development as important in maintaining and improving the quality of technical and vocational education. Rapid technological progress has necessitated a systematic approach to continuing technical teacher training. Career systems have been established to attract practising teachers to these courses. Besides such courses, newsletters, school conferences, library facilities and study visits help to update the teachers’ knowledge and skills.

In industrialized countries, the recruitment of qualified technical and vocational teachers with experience in industry is followed by special in-service programmes oriented towards subject updating and pedagogical training. Many countries indicate a general concern to improve the qualifications of teaching staff at all levels by means of in-service training, study grants, promotional incentives or other incentives to promote retraining. In many countries, the retraining of teachers is supported by the state.

In developing countries, there is a general shortage both of suitably qualified teaching staff and of teachers with relevant industrial or commercial experience. All countries recognize that teaching staff should possess appropriate academic and pedagogical qualifications, coupled with industrial experience.

Many countries stress that the pace of new developments requires their governments to provide adequate opportunities for frequent staff updating. While continuing education of all professionals is a major task in itself, the shortage of teachers in emerging technologies is crippling the efforts of many nations to start viable education programmes in these areas in the field of vocational and technical education. Developing countries, which suffer from a chronic shortage of adequately trained manpower, fail to attract sufficient numbers of talented people for their educational establishments because of the low financial incentives in education compared with those in the manufacturing and service industry.

In addition to their special subject field, all technical and vocational teachers need to keep up-to-date in and be aware of the applicability of new technologies to teaching. This puts technical and vocational teacher trainers under increasing pressure to innovate the initial teacher-training courses so as to provide adequately trained technical and vocational teaching personnel and to update and constantly upgrade their knowledge and skills. Developing countries have stressed the need for their own staff training programmes, featuring flexibility in the teachers’ application of the newly acquired skills to their specific teaching institutions. The need to assess their in-service training schemes and consider their impact on the work of individual teachers is clear. Many countries have recognized the importance of links between educational institutions and industry and commerce in order to provide present and future technical teachers with practical experience in industry and commerce, thereby ensuring that they acquire the appropriate knowledge and skills for their teaching. There are a variety of other systems linking industry and education and helping to upgrade technical and vocational teachers. One possibility is local co-operative projects, involving personnel from nearby companies and staff from technical and vocational education institutions. There are common research programmes, involving co-operation between the personnel of industrial and commercial enterprises and technical and vocational education personnel. Co-operative use of expensive equipment for community programmes is important, as is the secondment of staff from industrial/commercial enterprises to technical and vocational education institutions. Co-operation of industry and commerce with technical and vocational education staff in curriculum development and student assessment, particularly in work experience, is also common. All these forms of co-operation are being used in varying degrees in many countries. However, one difficulty of linking technical and vocational educators with industry and commerce is often the higher salaries and status of those working in industry. This can lead to staff discontent and in some cases to the loss of academic staff to industry. Some education systems now provide special incentives or benefits for technical teachers to control the exodus, but this can cause friction with general education teachers.

Responses from Member States to Unesco’s inquiry show that all countries consider staff development to be important for improving the quality of technical and vocational education. The value of international co-operation through staff exchanges, study tours, exchange of publications and research findings, and networking of institutions has been recognized by many nations. These forms of international co-operation are often implemented by national and regional government departments, as well as through the support of international organizations such as Unesco.

Generally, developing countries are still short of staff, in spite of various measures, in particular, arranging fellowship programmes and the establishment of pre-service teacher training institutions.

Many countries provide in-service updating and refresher pedagogical courses. Despite variations in patterns, the qualification of general secondary-school teachers usually requires a university degree plus some other form of teacher training, or previous teaching experience. For teachers in vocational education institutions, requirements in most cases are lower than those for technical education institutions (university degree), though some countries still require a university degree for vocational education. In the majority of countries, requirements include technical training or teaching experience. A number of countries also indicated qualitative attributes such as communication ability and adaptability, positive attitudes to the world of work, and so on. Industrial or other work experience is also generally considered a prerequisite. Some developing countries recognize that their administration and management personnel in the technical and vocational education field lack the necessary skills: pre-service and in-service training programmes in the technical and vocational education area, as well as in relation to the introduction of new technologies, are urgently needed.

Some countries suggest integrating pre-service and in-service training, and increased attention to the selection of candidates for teacher training. The suggestions made for staff development to be promoted through Unesco are: (a) development of regional training centres with the support of international organizations; (b) wide dissemination of the results of educational research into technical and vocational education; (c) increased utilization of equipment and facilities in industrial and commercial enterprises for training purposes; (d) development of maintenance skills of technical and vocational education teachers; and (e) development of computer software and improvement of trained personnel, examinations and management. Unesco already supports initiatives in some of these areas, such as the establishment of regional and central research and development units.

While a number of industrialized countries have national policies for the continuing professional development of technical and vocational education staff, many do not. National policies for the continuous professional development of teachers should focus on modular and distance/open-learning units of study, accreditation of staff development programmes, computer-based learning and co-operative peer review, mentorship and integrated learning. However, many countries have yet to implement these initiatives for the professional development of technical and vocational teachers.

12. Trends and issues and their implications for international co-operation


The importance of international co-operation in providing high-quality technical and vocational education should not be understated. Effective international co-operation can take place only on the basis of a framework of such co-operation. The benefits of co-operation, whether bilateral or through regional and international organizations, are indisputable, though there are pitfalls which should be noted. Blind borrowing of ideas can be dangerous because of cultural factors; even the advice of experts is not always reliable if they are not well versed in the principles of comparative education. In many instances, developing countries can learn better from each other, which has the additional advantage of being less expensive than learning from developed countries. Technical co-operation among developing countries will therefore be a significant element of Unesco’s future pattern of work.

Developing countries must define their own aims and objectives, use the expertise of their own staff and, with help from other countries, extend this expertise. Co-operation between some Member States has already resulted in innovative approaches such as: (a) the development of modules for teaching and teacher training; (b) the use of mobile teams; (c) the development of learning materials for international use; (d) the production of manuals and other supportive materials on workshop design and installation of equipment; and (e) the setting up of regional co-operative networks for educational innovations. However, there is still much work to be done in all these areas. Links between industrialized and developing countries should aim to make the institutions in developing countries self-reliant, able to use their own expertise within the institutions.

Examples of international co-operation include exemplar curricula for training courses in newly emerging areas and the preparation of instruction materials such as textbooks, self-study units, work books and laboratory, workshop and shop-floor manuals. The translation of these into local languages for adoption by the developing countries can be done through international co-operation. Similarly, the production of prototypes of educational media in the form of working models, demonstration trollies, multi-media learning packages, educational films, video cassettes and CAI packages is another area which could be assigned to specific institutes linked with the supply and distribution of these materials among the developing countries. Though these initiatives may appear time-consuming and expensive, they are felt to be relevant in the context of a changing environment and will prove to be highly beneficial and cost-effective on a long-term basis.