Preface


In preparation for the Second International Congress on Technical and Vocational Education (Seoul, Republic of Korea, April 1999) and at UNESCO’s request, a number of reference papers have been prepared by UNESCO’s sister agencies, inter-governmental and non-governmental organizations, as well as national institutions. These papers deal with a selection of important issues in technical and vocational education which can serve as a valuable reference to all participants attending the Congress.

UNESCO wishes to express its appreciation to all those who contributed their work to this document.

The views expressed in these reference papers are those of their authors and do not necessarily reflect those of UNESCO. The designations employed and the presentation of the materials do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the UNESCO Secretariat concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Providing Life-long Skill Training through an Integrated Education and Training System: The Australian Experience

Australian National Training Authority (ANTA)
G.P.O. Box 3120, Brisbane, Australia

Life-long learning makes an invaluable contribution to the personal, social and economic development of individuals and society. The philosophy articulated in APEC's paper on human resource development (1) argues the need for workers to constantly update their skills, "to survive, and profit, in the global economy, workers need to be educated, re-educated and educated again". Education is about inclusiveness, and is essential for improving lives and enhancing economic prosperity. In the long term it is hoped this will help reduce poverty, ignorance, and oppression and lead to a better society for tomorrow.

1 APEC Human Resource Development Industrial Technology Network web site - http://www.apec-hurdit.org

The Delors Report, Learning: The Treasure Within, established a new intellectual environment for discussion and debate in education for the next decade. It expresses an uncommon commitment to the importance of education for personal and social development. Education enables a nation to provide for its people an avenue to redress the hardships dealt by inequity and oppression. It empowers people, individually and collectively, to fulfill their potential, to contribute to society, and to extend the opportunities available to their children.

The Australian philosophy reflects that articulated in the APEC paper and in the Delors Report. The recognition of the need for life-long learning - accessible to all Australians - underpins the Australian Vocational Education and Training system. Vocational Education and Training (VET)(2) must benefit our people, labour market, society and the economy. Most importantly, we must remember that education is about people and how they learn.

2 Vocational Education and Training is how Australians refer to Technical and Vocational Education.

There are many examples of systems developments which aim to provide life-long skill training through an integrated education and training system. This paper explores the Australian experience in providing an overview of recent reforms and the emerging challenges.

THE AUSTRALIAN CONTEXT

Australia is a federation consisting of Commonwealth, State and Territory governments. Geographically isolated, we are populated by persons from a diversity of cultural and ethnic backgrounds. Although a significant number of Australians reside in the major capital cities, the remainder of the population is dispersed across Australia's large landmass. These characteristics have meant that educational strategies must be able to accommodate a multiplicity of learning requirements. Over the last fifteen years the nature of the economy has changed from reliance on primary resources and manufacturing to more dependence on service and knowledge based industries. These changes have created a need for the Australian labour force to be increasingly mobile, and new figures show that Australians change careers an average of three times in their working lives. This further exemplifies the need for life-long learning to be an integral part of the Australian approach to education and training.

Total POPULATION	18.5 million
LABOUR FORCE population (3)	9.2 million
EMPLOYED population	8.4 million
School students (4)	3.2 million
Vocational education and training students (government funded)	1.45 million
University students	650,000

3 Includes employed and unemployed (approx. 800,000) persons

4 Secondary school students make up 1.3 million (roughly 40%) of this figure

Australia has three currently distinct educational sectors: the schools sector which provides basic and preparatory education from years 1 to 12; the vocational education and training sector; and the university sector.

Current Sectors:

Schools

Vocational education and training

Universities

The sectors responsible for the funding and delivery of vocational education and training in Australia are detailed in the two charts below. Currently, industry and government provide equal amounts of funding, with the remainder coming from individuals. Nearly half of all vocational education and training programs are delivered by publicly funded institutions.

Australian Qualifications Framework

The Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) is a nationally consistent framework that allows for credit transfer and articulation between qualifications. The comprehensive framework spans all education sectors - schools, VET, and higher education. It covers all qualifications recognized in post-compulsory education, and consists of guidelines that define each qualification along with principles and protocols covering articulation, issuing of qualifications and transition arrangements. The many pathways for learning promotes flexibility and provides individuals with options to pursue life-long learning in a manner suited to their needs and at the desired levels. Although each sector has a distinct identity and focus, credit transfer and articulation arrangements facilitate individuals' ability to move through these sectors, a key feature of Australia's approach to life-long learning.

The twelve levels of qualifications are shown below, grouped according to the sector in which they are issued.

International Comparisons

An international comparison of Australia's education sectors is depicted in the charts below. In terms of the proportion of the population who have completed a degree in the university sector, Australia is above the OECD mean and ranks seventh out of the 26 OECD member countries. Overall however, Australia is below the OECD mean in terms of post-compulsory educational attainment, and ranks eighteenth.

Working Age Population with Post-compulsory Qualifications: Country Profiles and Rankings (1996)

Post Compulsory Ranking

Country	Profile	Rank
United States	85.7	1
Czech Republic	84.4	2
Norway	81.6	3
Germany	81.5	4
Switzerland	80.2	5
Canada	76.4	6
United Kingdom	76.3	7
Sweden	74.2	8
Poland	73.7	9
Austria	71.3	10
Finland	66.8	11
Denmark	66.1	12
Hungary	63.2	13
Netherlands	62.5	14
Korea	61.1	15
France	60.2	16
New Zealand	60.2	17
Australia	57.0	18
Belgium	53.5	19
Ireland	50.2	20
Greece	44.2	21
Italy	38.2	22
Spain	30.2	23
Luxembourg	29.3	24
Portugal	20.4	25
Turkey	17.0	26

University degree Ranking

Country	Profile	Rank
United States	25.8	1
Netherlands	22.5	2
Korea	19.0	3
Canada	17.3	4
Norway	15.6	5
Denmark	15.3	6
Australia	14.8	7
Hungary	13.4	8
Sweden	13.4	9
Germany	13.1	10
Spain	12.8	11
United Kingdom	12.8	12
Greece	12.0	13
Finland	11.9	14
Luxembourg	11.4	15
New Zealand	11.3	16
Ireland	10.7	17
Belgium	10.7	18
Czech Republic	10.4	19
Poland	9.9	20
France	9.7	21
Switzerland	9.5	22
Italy	8.1	23
Portugal	7.5	24
Turkey	6.3	25
Austria	6.1	26

Evolution of the Australian VET System

The Australian Federation has a strong tradition of vocational education and training, but for many years vocational education and training was confined to a narrow range of qualifications offered by state-based government Technical and Further Education institutes. In 1974 a national review set in place the beginnings for a national vocational education and training system, which has grown significantly and now features a wide range of providers.

At the national level is the Australian National Training Authority (ANTA). Established in 1994, ANTA is a Commonwealth statutory authority headed by an industry led Board that advises Commonwealth, State and Territory Ministers on how to best achieve a national focus for the VET system. The Ministers (collectively known as the ANTA Ministerial Council) are responsible for final decisions on strategic policy and planning, funding, and national objectives and priorities. The importance of the ANTA Board in the policy process recognizes the pivotal role industry now plays in the Australian system.

State and Territory interests are represented by bodies called State and Territory Training Authorities. These authorities address the industry and community training needs of their respective jurisdictions, whilst maintaining a national focus. Through their annual vocational education and training plans they contribute to a national profile of Australia's training needs.

Over the past six years there has been a substantial increase in the number of private providers offering vocational education and training, although Technical and Further Education Institutes remain the largest public provider in Australia. Today however, these Institutes compete with an array of private and other publicly funded providers. This enhanced system provides a range of options for individuals to pursue life-long learning.

A major reform in the Australian system has been the move towards competency-based training.

The focus of this approach is to equip people with industry determined skills, the successful attainment and demonstration of which entitles the learner to the relevant qualification under the Australian Qualifications Framework. Under this regime, the content of training is determined by the needs of industry, and qualifications are issued when skills are attained, not according to predetermined time periods.

Initially, the Australian vocational education and training system was supply (that is, provider) focused and provided for limited industry involvement in the development of training courses that would meet the needs of the future work force. Industry regarded the skills that the vocational education and training system gave people as inadequately aligned with the skills needed by persons in the workplace.

With the introduction of national industry developed competency standards, the needs of industry received greater recognition. However, the government still regulated training by accrediting programs, and trade training was restricted to a relatively narrow range of industries. This approach covered a limited number of industries, and further work was required to ensure that the needs of Australia's rapidly changing work force were met with ensuing improvements in growth and productivity.

The strategic initiatives which now guide Australia's national vocational education and training system are set out in 'A Bridge to the Future - Australia's National Strategy for Vocational Education and Training 1998 - 2003'. The strategy consolidates the recent reforms and details collective commitment by Australian governments, in partnership with Australian industry, to implementing further reforms to create a vocational education and training system which is responsive to client needs and a cornerstone to life-long skills training. The strategy details the key objectives of the sector and enunciates a vision for the Australian vocational education and training system. This vision is to ensure that the skills of the Australian labour force are sufficient to support internationally competitive commerce and industry and to provide individuals with opportunities to optimize their potential.

The central objectives which underpin the vision of the system are:

· equipping Australians for the world of work;
· enhancing mobility in the labour market;
· achieving equitable outcomes in VET;
· increasing investment in training; and
· maximizing the value of public VET expenditure.

To assist in the achievement of these key objectives, Australia's VET system is supported by the Australian Recognition Framework and Training Packages.

The objective of the Australian Recognition Framework and Training Packages is to improve the quality of all-vocational education and training products and services, and to develop a more co-operative and united national approach. Together, the Australian Recognition Framework and Training Packages simplify the way training is regulated, define who is responsible for it, describe how quality can be guaranteed, and ensure that nationally consistent policies and procedures are in place.

The Australian Recognition Framework creates a national, quality oriented registration process for training and assessment organisations. Within the framework, the new Training Packages approach complements the traditional approach of State and Territory accreditation of programs. The Australian Recognition Framework facilitates the mutual recognition of registered training organisations, services and products; creates a level playing field between private and public providers; and encourages diversification of recognised products and services.

Training Packages provide the basic building blocks for vocational education and training programs. Training Packages are sets of national training resources consisting of national competency standards, assessment guidelines and national qualifications, and they have laid the foundations for a national system, which is supported by key stakeholders. Developed by industry, Training Packages have also gone a long way to achieving the move away from centralised, limited course accreditation. They bring together, through processes managed by each industry sector, the previously disconnected approaches to standards, programs, qualifications and learning resources. This creates a comprehensive tool kit for learning and assessment leading to nationally recognised qualifications. Individual Training Packages are developed for specific industry areas by national Industry Training Advisory Bodies, with extensive involvement by industry to make sure they meet industry and enterprise needs. The Australian vocational education and training system is now increasingly characterised by registered providers using flexible, industry designed and nationally endorsed education and training products in ways that most benefit the learner.

Components of a Training Package Endorsed

Highlights of the Australian System

Complementing these reforms are an array of specific initiatives which, collectively, address the major economic, technological and social trends which affect vocational education and training in Australia.

Australia's political and business leaders have long been concerned with the declining numbers of apprentices and have responded with an initiative called "New Apprenticeships". Building on the existing apprenticeship and traineeship system, this initiative is aimed at modernizing traditional apprenticeships and traineeships, making them more attractive propositions for both employers and apprentices/trainees. Based on industry approved Training Packages, New Apprenticeships are recognised across Australia and are available across a wide range of industries, including both traditional areas and Australia's new generation of industries such as media, entertainment, information technology and hospitality.

New Apprenticeships lead to nationally recognised qualifications, and can be commenced while an individual is still at school. For employers, the government provides incentives to take on an apprentice and each employer has greater autonomy over the content of training and the method and timing of its delivery.

Both learners and employers are calling for more choice in training. In developing a strategic response to this demand, 'Flexible delivery' methods are being embraced, encompassing a range of approaches that aim to provide the training that employers and learners want, when they want it, at a convenient location and using a variety of approaches and resources. Flexible delivery in Australia is largely made possible through recent advances in technology, which has enabled more convenient, cost effective and accessible education and training to be provided, especially to those Australians for whom distance is a barrier to traditional learning methods. Nowadays, even when the distance between the learner and the educator is immense, it is not necessarily problematic. Technological advances, coupled with flexible training delivery methods, means that rural Australians will enjoy one of the world's best distance education systems.

In recent years, Australian governments have made significant advances in broadening senior schooling to include vocational education and training in an effort to equip young people with the skills employers need. This major initiative aimed at Australia's youth population is called "VET in Schools". "VET in Schools" aims to make school more relevant by helping students prepare for life in the work force. Students are encouraged to stay at school longer and their chances of gaining employment are increasing because they actually have the skills that enterprises need. Continuing participation in vocational education and training after young people leave school is also increasing.

The "VET in Schools" program enables school students to undertake one of three models of practical work related activity:

· full time school students can participate in a vocational education and training program delivered by the school or a public or private training provider;

· students can commence a trainee-ship or apprenticeship involving a training contract and paid employment while still at school; or

· students participate in part time work out of school hours with a formal, structured training component.

Today, many Australian schools now offer comprehensive, relevant vocational education programs to their students in addition to the traditional secondary school senior certificate. To align with "VET in Schools", career and course information is being developed to ensure that Australian school students have the necessary information to make their secondary and post-secondary education choices.

Seamless pathways between sectors mean that people from a range of educational backgrounds can access different types of education. Many of our vocational education and training providers and higher education institutions have successfully cultivated relationships that facilitate articulation from one sector to the other. This applies to movement in both directions and a feature of recent Australian experience is that many university students, on completion of their degrees, are undertaking vocational education and training qualifications. In fact the magnitude of this "reverse articulation" is larger now than the number of students moving on from vocational education and training to university. Various arrangements allow for students with qualifications in one sector to be granted credit towards study or qualifications in another sector. ANTA and the Australian Vice-Chancellors' Committee - the peak Universities body in Australia - have reached an agreement to develop credit transfer and articulation arrangements for qualifications in Training Packages in areas such as tourism, telecommunications, engineering, information technology, management and administration. Australia embarks upon this major project with a firm view that the distinctiveness of the vocational education and training sector remains a priority and that post-compulsory education pathways should lead to an heterogeneous not an homogenous range of offerings. The educational pursuits of young Australians should not be frustrated by constraints in moving between sectors and this is being achieved by arrangements where the university and vocational education and training sectors are moving towards recognising each others' passports at the borders rather than through uniformity between the sectors.

EMERGING CHALLENGES FOR THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM

The Australian system is currently undergoing significant reform. These reforms are not internally driven. Instead, they are in response to external pressures that impact on Australia as a whole. Rapid technological advancements have opened up new delivery and information possibilities; competition between public and private providers for public funds is creating a more competitive and contestable environment across a variety of Australian industries and sectors; strategic alliances, re-alignments, partnerships and mergers are occurring; outsourcing is commonplace; and consumer expectations have matured and strengthened. The forces for change are:

Globalisation

Like many other nations, Australia is facing increasing pressure to be responsive and competitive in a global market. This requires a skilled work force. However, Australia's adult population is currently poorly qualified when compared to international standards. We are 7 percent below the OECD average in terms of the proportion of the population aged 25 to 64 who complete secondary school (53%). Our qualifications profile is very uneven. We have high levels of attainment at university level but low levels for vocational education and training and upper secondary school when compared internationally.

Information and Communication Technologies

Australia has experienced a rapid increase in the availability and take-up of new technologies. This has opened up new delivery possibilities for the vocational education and training sector. In the near future, learning through these technological advances will become enmeshed in our lives, in the workplace, and in communities. The Australian vocational education and training system is currently working with the Information Technology and Telecommunications industry to find ways on how to best meet the skill requirements which are rapidly emerging.

Market Reform - The Need for Greater Quality and Flexibility

To meet learners' needs and build a skilled work force, the Australian vocational education and training sector must be able to competitively deliver high quality products and services in a variety of formats, delivery modes and settings. A challenge for governments and providers is to continue the smooth transition from the traditional behaviour of dictating to the market and erecting artificial barriers, to allowing market mechanisms to determine the distribution of education and training services. In the pursuit of enhanced market competition, It is important that we balance this need with a concern for equality of opportunity. Recent market reforms such as user choice and competitive tendering are the initial steps to achieving a market that is both client responsive, and that takes account of longer-term social and economic needs. Clients must be informed about their training options and the associated costs and benefits.

Restructuring of the Labour Market

There is an increasing labour market demand for highly skilled technical workers. It is those individuals who possess the skills required, and the ability to continually update them, who will be able to make the most of the opportunities emerging in Australia's rapidly changing labour market. Australia must increase the skills profile of those in the existing work force and encourage life-long learning as an integral element of working life. Only by achieving this will Australia have a work force, which is sufficiently skilled to respond to future challenges, be they global or domestic.

Demand for continuing reform to the vocational education and training sector and its products and services is inevitable. In this 'new world' it is imperative that we have a clear idea of our long term goals and how to achieve them. The challenge for the vocational education and training sector is to develop strategies, which enable both economic and social goals to be realised. It is within this context that we in Australia are working towards building a vocational education and training sector that will take us into the next century.

Future Directions for the Australian System

To assist in achieving the central objectives outlined in Australia's National Strategy for Vocational Education and Training 1998 - 2003, Australia is implementing a variety of strategies aimed at improving and enhancing the attitudes and values of the community towards training, and modifying the behaviour of industry to encourage an environment conducive to lifelong learning and training. This move toward a training culture which supports a culture of learning is about establishing a set of instinctive behaviours, beliefs and values, shared by all Australians - employers, employees, the training community and the wider community alike -which leads them to a life-long interest in vocational education and training and a visible commitment to participating and investing in both formal and informal training.

We believe that successful implementation of the strategies outlined below, along with those already in place, will foster a culture of training and life-long learning among Australians. It will also shift the vocational education and training system towards a system which is truly responsive to the needs of the individual, and enable us to meet domestic and global challenges 'head on'.

Seamless Pathways (seamless post-secondary system)

Seamless pathways linking the sectors of Australia's post-secondary education and training system will allow greater choice and flexibility for clients of the system. It will enable learners to move freely in and between sectors while ensuring that outcomes from each are relevant and valued.

A seamless post-secondary system will be achieved by a national policy framework to guide credit transfer and articulation arrangements between vocational education and training and higher education; the expansion of employment based pathways; and comprehensive careers and course advice which enables clients to consider the full range of available options.

Raising and Improving Awareness of Vocational Education and Training

Notwithstanding the marketing activities of all stakeholders, the level of awareness and uptake of vocational education and training options remains low. It is important that Australian communities are well informed about the nature and benefits of vocational education and training. The culture of enterprises, and of society more generally, must also change for there to be a maximization of the value of vocational education and training. There is a need to move industry, enterprises and individuals to a position where vocational education and training has a higher value in business and career thinking, and to encourage a mindset where training is viewed as an investment, with associated costs and benefits. It is therefore essential that we move to improve and demystify the status and image of vocational education and training. This will be achieved through the development of a national marketing strategy and by improving the marketing of vocational education and training products and services.

Raising the National Qualifications Profile

It is important that Australia raise its national qualifications profile, if we are to boost our skill levels and become more internationally competitive. The approach we are taking to raise the national qualifications profile involves addressing both the schools sector, and adult skill levels. There is a concern about the current decline in school retention rates among young people, and the increasing number of young people in neither full time work or full time study. We are addressing this by working co-operatively with the schools sector and enhancing the current "VET in Schools" program. We are also promoting greater involvement from industry to support schools and the vocational education and training sector to undertake a broader range of New Apprenticeships.

Targets for participation in education have been set for 19 and 22 year olds. The first target aims to have 95 percent of all 19 year olds participating in or having completed Year 12 or equivalent by 2001. The second target aims to have 60 percent of 22 year olds participating in or having completed education training programs that lead to awards at Certificate 3 level or above by 2001.

Australia aims to increase adult skill levels and boost the recognised skills of older workers to reduce the qualifications gap between younger and older workers. This is being achieved by expanding the opportunities for adults to pursue further education and training through Training Packages. Training Packages being developed will explicitly identify language, literacy and numeracy requirements within standards. This represents a significant focus by policy makers and vocational education and training institutes on language, literacy and numeracy because poor literacy and numeracy skills can act as a barrier to participating in further education and training. There is also a policy focus on education and training gaps where these are restraining competitiveness to ensure that Australia becomes internationally competitive.

Expansion of Flexible Delivery

Participants in the Australian vocational education and training sector have recognised that learning occurs over a lifetime in many settings, including schools, vocational education and training providers, universities, workplaces, community organisations, the home and elsewhere. The increasing utilisation of flexible delivery methods means greater flexibility for individuals in how they choose to learn, and enhances the responsiveness of the vocational education and training sector to the growing demand by employers for on-line training solutions. Flexible delivery allows a significant focus on and improvement in distance education in Australia and effectively harnesses new technologies to play a key role in the provision of a diverse range of educational services, in a variety of modes of delivery and settings.

Research, Development and Innovation

To ensure that Australia is aware of the latest advancements in vocational education and training, and to assist in improving current practices, a strong commitment to research, development and innovation is coupled with extensive funding of research centres around Australia. This ensures that the planning and implementation of changes to vocational education and training are of the highest possible quality, and industry and client responsive.

CONCLUSION

Australia's vision for life-long learning involves a drive for seamless pathways between sectors, which will mean clear and uncluttered pathways through the maze of educational options and institutions. This creates an environment where all young Australians are able to access post-compulsory education and adults are able to continuously upgrade their skills and knowledge through their working lives. This vision is essential in our pursuit of better lives for all Australians and delivers the additional bonus of assisting in Australia's transition to a knowledge-based economy. This transition is about finding, adopting and implementing strategies for Australia to remain competitive in a rapidly changing world and to enhance our human development, so we can continue to pave a productive path for the nation and our people. Life-long learning is an integral component in the achievement of these goals, as it is about encouraging all Australians to enhance their skills by establishing clear pathways through educational sectors and into the work force. It enables them to fulfill their potential, and contribute to the social and economic well being of the nation. Life-long learning in Australia is about opening doors for all Australians; especially those who have previously been denied the access or the opportunity for further development. The Australian system reflects a collaborative effort by governments and industry to address the needs of individual Australians and provide each of them with the skills and opportunities to enhance their own lives, and create a secure and stable Australia for their children. The Australian approach to VET, as with many other countries, also reflects the spirit of the Delors Report - that learning throughout life can become the means for each of us to establish an equilibrium between learning and working, continued adaptation for a number of occupations and for the exercise of actual citizenship.

Promoting Equal Access of Girls/Women to Technical and Vocational Education

Pandit Sunderlal Sharma Central Institute of Vocational Education (PSSCIVE)
131, Zone-II, M.P. Nagar
Bhopal - 462 011 India

UNESCO's policy to promote the equal access of girls and women to technical and vocational education is based on the Organization's normative instruments: the Revised Recommendation concerning Technical and Vocational Education (1974) and the Convention on Technical and Vocational Education (1989). As these instruments indicate, the continued persistence of inequality in this field calls for specific action in respect of girls and women taking into account their particular needs and the obstacles to be overcome.

CHALLENGES OF TVE FOR GIRLS IN 21^ST CENTURY

The 21st Century would see a highly technological world in which the ever-advancing technologies will overwhelm our lives and workplaces. Even the traditional agrarian and rural sectors of developing countries will not be untouched by these changes where production techniques and services will acquire a degree of automation. At the same time the early part of the next millenium would, in all probability, see a sharp transition from low tech to high tech practices in production, services and in homes. A mix of the two may be experienced for some years to come, particularly in developing societies. The 21st century will also see equal participation of both sexes in all walks of life. To expedite this process, conscious efforts on the part of present decision-makers would be highly necessary. The new developmental scenario of ecological sustainability would also have to be addressed. The trend of globalization of the world economy is expected to manifest itself fully in the very near future. The effect of changes in one country would be felt throughout the world and no country will remain isolated from others. The upheavals in the South East Asian economy, for instance, would send chills down the spine of Wall Street. The world would be an increasingly competitive market place where superior skilled human resource and technology would provide an edge to the competing nations. These in effect would set the parameters for the quality of TVE for all, and increasing participation of women alongside men, on a level playing field. While working women's continuing education and skill upgradation has to be high on the agenda, the secondary education as a step in life long learning may be seen as holding the key to the future challenges.

Secondary education having preparatory as well as terminal functions, is a critical stage for the future development of girls. It is largely accepted that TVE can equip women for the job market or self-employment, thereby increasing their self-reliance and self-confidence besides inculcating in them the capacity to take vital decisions about themselves and society at large. The major challenges that we face in the near future as regards ensuring equal access of girls and women to technical vocational education are:

Increasing Participation of Girls, specially rural girls in TVE

Presently, secondary education is available to a much smaller percentage of girls as compared to boys in most of the developing countries. This automatically reflects the percentage or absolute number of girls in the TVE system. In order for TVE to be really effective at the secondary stage and beyond, the girls must complete the primary cycle.

Also, forced by various socio-economic factors and practices, girls, specifically rural girls are busy during most part of the day either working to earn or caring for younger siblings. This results in a pathetically low enrolment of rural girls in school. Withdrawal of girls at puberty, early marriage, school location, physical facilities and hours of instruction have been identified as barriers to girls' education at secondary level in South Asia.

In many developing countries, although there is a marked improvement in women's status and role as a whole, gender disparities are still evident in the participation of women in TVE. Even in developed countries, despite several initiatives in the economic sector, it is disheartening to note that a very small percentage of employed women are in the Technical and Vocational fields. In many countries the participation rate is higher in primary and tertiary (mostly agriculture and services) sectors than in the secondary sector of industrial production.

Speaking specifically for TVE, countries like Mexico, Korea, Sweden, Turkey & Zambia have both legislation and national policies that provide for equal access to TVE for girls and women.

Removing the Gender Bias in TVE from Educational Planning, Parents, Society and Employers

Parental conservatism and apathy to any kind of job oriented education for girls often restricts their access to education in general and TVE in particular. Vocational education is still thought to be suitable only for boys, the ultimate "bread winners"- the role of girls being largely confined to home making and child rearing. If girls do opt for vocational courses, more often than not, conditioned by the structure created by the society, they choose fields traditionally stereotyped as suitable for women.

A gender stereotyping of vocational courses exists in schools since many countries even today adopt a restrictive policy in providing vocational courses to girls. As a common practice, only softer courses such as tailoring, dressmaking, cooking etc. are accessible to girls. Such discriminatory attitude forecloses all options for girls and prevents them from acquiring more modern technological and scientific skills.

It is also evident that a far smaller number of girls than boys opt for science and mathematics stream. This coupled with a relatively inferior quality of teaching of science and mathematics in most schools leads to weaknesses in these subjects. The lack of an adequate foundation in science and mathematics further circumscribes the girls' choices for courses requiring knowledge and application of science and technology.

The masculine image given to science and technology in the curriculum, text books and media and also irrelevance of curricular presentation in Science, Technology and Mathematics (STM) to girls views and experiences are often cited as constraints to access of STM education to girls in Africa and Caribbean. It has been observed that even in the countries where all types of courses are made available to girls, the number of girls opting for non-traditional courses is very low. Parental and societal bias regarding certain courses being suitable only for boys is the probable cause for this. This results in a large percentage of females enrolled in TVE being still in traditional female-oriented trades. It is also noted that women's participation in technical jobs is considerably lower.

It is seen that most employers have rigid notions of gender-appropriateness and subtly discriminate against girls. Even if girls are employed, they are entrusted with jobs involving less skill and also paid far less than their male counterparts.

Discriminatory practices have been noted in hiring, wage and position level distribution in favour of males in most of the countries. It is sad to note that women, on an average, still earn little more than half of men's wages.

Ensuring Positive Facilitation of both Wage- and Self-employment for Girls

There are limited employment opportunities for girls, especially in rural areas. It becomes necessary, therefore, that entrepreneurship is inculcated among girls in order to lead them to self-employment.

Women also get easily displaced because of changing job skills. They are either pushed out or pushed down. There is therefore a need for continuous in-service training and upgrading of skills.

Social and sexual security at the place of study and work is a prerequisite to attracting greater numbers of girls. Ensuring a secure and congenial environment in schools and the workplace should therefore be one of the action points. The social conditioning of girls and parents is such that a self-venture for girls is often unthinkable. Girls are far too delicate and fragile for this! Adding insult to injury is the discriminatory nature of our financing and funding institutions and Government regulations. Girls are either not entitled to receive financial aid or the procedural requirements are far too complicated. Girls cannot hold collateral to land or property and so cannot extend surety for the finance being sought. Even parents are reluctant to stand guarantee for them because of the impending departure of their daughters after marriage. Simpler procedures of inducting girls in self-employment should therefore be laid down and practised.

On the matter of providing employment opportunity protection for girls and women, several countries like India, Mexico, Republic of Korea, Spain, Sweden, Turkey and UAE have legislation as well as national policies. South Africa is developing legislation and national policies to provide employment opportunity protection for girls and women.

RECOMMENDATIONS TOWARDS FUTURE STRATEGIES

In order to promote equal access of girls and women in TVE, it is imperative that policy and programme interventions should give primacy to needs-based vocational education to girls and women in non-traditional occupations. The strategies to be adopted for effecting this have to keep in view the cultural, geographical and ecological variations as also the problems relating to poverty and ignorance. At the same time it is also important that TVE addresses the current unemployment and low economic potential of women in the context of low-tech skills of the developing world. Some of the proposed strategies are:

Decentralized and Non restrictive Educational Planning

The cultural and geographical variations across any country call for decentralisation of educational planning keeping in view the socio-cultural and economic parameters of the area. The vocational and occupational components have to be designed in accordance with the availability of resources and job opportunities in the region. NGOs and women's' groups active in the area should be involved in the task. A totally non-restrictive policy in TVE should be adopted. As a matter of policy, all TVE courses should be made available to girls and boys on an equal basis. Also, elimination of illiteracy, universalisation of elementary education and minimization of the dropout rate in the age group of 6 to 14 would draw many more students to secondary and post secondary levels. This would demand a much-expanded system.

Expanded Programme of Non-formal, Low-Tech Vocational Training for Rural Girls

A very formal, rigid system of education prevailing in several other countries restricts the participation of rural girls. A more flexible delivery system, such as non-formal and open learning should be put in place or expanded. Flexibility of school timings according to the suitability to local living pattern would encourage a greater number of rural girls to participate. Practical subjects like animal husbandry, cattle care, soil conservation, agriculture, social forestry, food preservation, etc. may be added to courses offered in rural areas. In a bid to keep abreast with the global technological advancements and demands thereof, one should not forget that rural areas may not at the moment be conducive to courses suitable to the industrial world. It would be wise to design both high-tech and low-tech courses depending on their relevance. This is especially true for developing countries and the agrarian economies of Asia, Africa and Latin America.

Gender Sensitive Planning, Gender Inclusive Curricula and Gender Neutral Educational and Vocational Guidance and Counselling Services for Girls and Their Parents

Strengthening science and mathematics teaching in all girls' schools along with overcoming the shortage of science and mathematics teachers would go a long way to equipping them with academic competence to take up TVE. Participation of girls in non-traditional courses must be ensured. Efforts in this direction would include provision of adequate hostel facilities, employment of female teachers in girls' schools especially in rural and semi-urban areas, adoption of a non-restrictive policy in offering technical vocational courses, provision of incentives, etc. Many girls and also their parents are largely unaware of the various TVE courses, their relevance to life, the job opportunities, their employ ability potential, ways and means for setting up a self-venture etc. Having access to guidance and counselling services would convince them about the importance of TVE and would alleviate misgivings regarding the future prospects. All educational planning must be sensitive to both sex without any prejudice. Unless the sensitivity towards girls and their issues reflects in the planning, the implementation of TVE is bound to be all the more tilted away from them. The curriculum should also exhibit respect and concern for girls, their specific aptitudes, capabilities, constraints etc.

Periodic Upgradation of Syllabi and Instructional Materials

In order to serve the rapidly changing needs and demands of the area and employment scenario in developing countries, it is imperative that our syllabi and instructional materials continue to be relevant to the present day context and also have some element of future requirements incorporated in them. For this they should be periodically upgraded.

Creating a Gender Sensitive Support Structure for Working Women

Services of the mass media may be utilised for public awareness about the importance of bringing women in the mainstream of life and economy. Success stories of women engaged in work: self or wage should be publicised. This would lend credence to the potentialities of women and accord greater acceptance of their contribution to the nation's work force. Provision of support to working women in the area of domestic services and childcare in particular would enable them to give their best to the system since their duties of home making and child rearing are of prime concern not only to them but also to the society as a whole.

In order to increase participation and retention of girls in the job market, it is imperative that employers are sensitive to the female gender. A sense of concern along with an attitude of respect and non discrimination towards girls would give a joyful work place, a place full of confidence, trust, mutual respect and benefit to all concerned. The performance and contribution of girls would soar to new heights in a conducive work environment which would help not only the employer but also the society and nation as a whole.

Strict and honest enforcement of social and labour legislation must be effected so as to ensure basic employment benefits to women. Unless the policy of 'equal work equal pay' is followed in letter and spirit, the work scenario will continue to discourage women in joining the workforce.

A SUMMARY OF INNOVATIVE EXPERIENCES GAINED BY PSSCIVE

The Pandit Sunderlal Sharma Central Institute of Vocational Education (PSSCIVE), Bhopal, India initiated a number of projects to promote equal access of girls to vocational education. These include production of video films, which promote gender equality. The films are titled "Vocational Education - The Steps Forward", "Quest for Career", "Foundation for Vocational Education" and "Horticulture - A Challenging Career Option".

In all the films, considerable footage has been devoted to encourage girls to view themselves as career persons and attempts have been made to downplay gender bias. Interviews with successful women entrepreneurs have been shown to create new role models. Self-ventures of vocational graduates have been shown to instil confidence among the younger girls.

The PSSCIVE has also produced six video snippets, which are advertisement films on various themes of vocational education. Women empowerment is the concept carefully interwoven in the themes of these films. Attention has also been paid to the fact that motivating the students was not enough, their elders' i.e., parents and in-laws should also be sensitised. The scripts addressed these target groups also.

A project is also in progress to develop print intervention materials for students, with special focus on girls to encourage increased participation in TVE. The societal perception in India, and also in most developing countries, about girls has not changed appreciably. Marriage is a priority and is favoured by society over career and economic empowerment. Girls' education is also mostly viewed not as a means to make them empowered but to groom them better for the market of marriage. It was, therefore, realized that carefully designed programmes should be taken up to intervene against this attitudinal discrimination. Two types of print materials are being developed - motivational and informative. The target group covers society as a whole, specific address is made to parents to sensitise them to view girls as career persons. Deliberate attempts have been made to remove gender bias in courses for girls.

The Institute has also initiated a number of research activities such as "Career aspirations of girls in urban and rural societies vis-a-vis vocational education". The PSSCIVE is making efforts to develop linkages with the industry sector. To start with, a programme of developing networking with the end users was taken up in Gujarat State of India, wherein, industry and bank representatives were taken to schools offering 'Food Preservation and Processing'. The visiting representatives were often surprised by the confidence level of girls and agreed to employ them. Thus a beginning in developing an element of faith was made.

Women's equality and empowerment has been given a high priority in PSSCIVE publications. The PSSCIVE organised a National Seminar in 1997 on "Economic Empowerment of Women through Vocational Education" with a view to emphasizing the role of Vocational Education in women empowerment and to identify areas where women need to be empowered and the role of various agencies in promoting this cause. This seminar addressed various issues related to women empowerment and vocational education. Another National Seminar was organised recently on "Overcoming Constraints in Economic Empowerment of Women". The main objective of this seminar was to frame ideas and recommendations as to how the barriers to Economic Empowerment could be reduced. Experts have suggested some very specific responsibilities which need to be taken up by various agencies like Government, Educational Institutions, NGOs, Department of Police, the Judiciary etc. in order to help girls and women in overcoming several barriers which they encounter during the process of their Economic Empowerment.

SUMMARY

Some of the major challenges that we face in the 21st century with regard to ensuring equal access of girls and women to TVE are:

· Increasing the participation of girls' especially rural girls in TVE, removing the gender bias in TVE from educational planning, parents, society and employers. Besides, facilitating employment for girls is also a major challenge.

· In order to be able to meet these challenges, it is imperative that specific strategies are adopted keeping in view the cultural, geographical and ecological variations as also problems relating to poverty and ignorance. Some of the proposed strategies are:

· Decentralised and non-respective educational planning, expanded programme of non formal, low-tech vocational training for rural girls, gender sensitive planning, gender inclusive curriculum and gender exclusive educational and vocational guidance and counselling services for girls and their parents, periodic upgradation of syllabi and instructional materials and creation of gender sensitive support structure for working women.

The Pandit Sunderlal Sharma Central Institute of Vocational Education (PSSCIVE), Bhopal has initiated some projects to promote equal access of girls to vocational education. These include production of video films and video snippets for promotion of gender equality and popularisation of vocational programmes. Through these films an attempt is made to sensitize people about the need to encourage access of girls and women to TVE. The Institute is also engaged in research activities related to career aspirations of girls vis-a-vis vocational education. The role of vocational education in effecting economic empowerment of women is also addressed by the Institute through national seminars and meetings.

The Changing Role of Government and Other Stakeholders in Vocational Education and Training

Training Policies and Systems Branch
Employment and Training Department
International Labour Office (ILO)
4, route des Morillons
CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland

INTRODUCTION

The combined forces of globalization, technological change and liberalization of markets are creating a more and more competitive economic environment and changing the very nature of work and work organization. At the same time as opening new job opportunities, they are increasing workers' vulnerability. The ILO's World Employment Report 1998-99 estimates that, of a world labour force of 3 billion workers, 25 to 30 percent are underemployed and about 140 million are unemployed. By the end of 1998 an additional 10 million workers are expected to be added to the ranks of the unemployed, mainly as a result of the large-scale displacement of workers caused by the East Asian economic crisis.

In this environment, the quality of the labour force has become a major determinant in the competitiveness and adaptability of enterprises, workers and the economy; it also poses a challenge to the vocational education and training (VET) systems to meet the rapidly and continuously changing labour market demands. Education and training systems face a multiple challenge. Firstly, in order to equip workers who are already employed with new skills and competencies, they need to develop a system of continuous in-service training that can respond flexibly and rapidly to labour market requirements. Secondly, they need to offer young people the sound education and broad initial training that will give them a solid basis for continuing training throughout their working life. Thirdly, they must ensure access of those who are not employed the disadvantaged and at-risk, to opportunities for training. What is the role of the state and the non-government sector in adapting VET to the changing requirements of the labour market, and in its governance and delivery?

I. RETHINKING THE ROLE OF THE STATE AND THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

The world of work is evolving and with it, the role of the state in VET. The far-reaching transformation of the global economy is compelling governments and the private sector to rethink their development strategy in general, and VET in particular. Looking back at how the role of the public and private sectors has changed over the years, three broad stages can be discerned.

Stage 1: Unstructured and unregulated VET

Historically, the private sector has played a major role in developing the knowledge and skills it needed, through the family, religious institutions and at the workplace. Until this century, unstructured and informal apprenticeship was the usual means of acquiring the competencies that served as a passport for entry into skilled occupations. As a traditional and informal mode of skill acquisition for semi-skilled trades, crafts and occupations, it still predominates, particularly in the informal and rural sectors of many developing countries. This kind of informal apprenticeship, regulated only by custom and tradition, tends to be a once-in-a-lifetime experience through which existing skills are handed down rather than new skills acquired. In this first stage of VET, the government does not appear as a major player.

Stage 2: Supply-driven, state-dominated VET

Only in the twentieth century, with the rise of the welfare state and the introduction of development planning, did the state assume a dominant role in providing structured vocational education and training services. There are two main considerations underlying the role of the state in VET. The first is its responsibility to ensure that all citizens have access to education and training opportunities and services so that they can become useful members of society. The second revolves around the argument that, since society, as a whole is the intended beneficiary of such training, the public should bear at least part of its cost. This second stage was characterized by the establishment of national vocational training authorities. The main concern of the government has been providing education and training for those outside employment: initial training for young people and training for the disadvantaged.

VET within the education system - Using schools and public institutions within the education system to impart workplace skills has taken hold only in this century, and many countries include the delivery of skills in the regular school curriculum. In most of the former centrally planned economies and in many developing countries, technical and vocational schools combine academic and technical and hands-on training.

Vocational training institutions (VTIs) outside the education system - VTIs have been established outside the formal education system throughout the world and may be publicly owned, or privately owned by voluntary non-profit organizations, by proprietary agencies operated for profit, or by enterprises. Many large enterprises, recognising the importance of a well qualified labour force and dissatisfied with the quality of workers provided by the VET system, have set up their own training centres.

Private sector training - Enterprises have continued to play a critical role both in the pre-employment training of youth through informal and organized apprenticeship and on-the-job training, while voluntary non-profit agencies have focused efforts on reaching the most disadvantaged. Yet, despite its economic importance, the role of the private sector in the provision of skills has been largely overlooked in official policy making, as has the contribution of VTIs operated by enterprises. In the case of proprietary training, in particular, the profit motive has sometimes been seen as overriding broader educational and training objectives and hence lowering the quality of delivery. Yet, private sector institutions can respond quickly to changing requirements, adapt their curricula to their clientele, thus maintaining placement rates, while public VTIs tend to suffer from a rigid regulatory framework, a lack of accountability, entrepreneurial know-how and capital to respond to demand quickly and adequately.

Start of public/private collaboration - As apprenticeship has evolved in line with production practices, there has been a shift in many countries towards in-service, hands-on training by the enterprises themselves. The latter part of this second stage and the early part of the third are accordingly marked by the establishment of structured and regulated apprenticeship systems, such as Germany's dual system and the alternance training practised in France and other European countries. This combination of on-the-job training by enterprises with vocational education and training in schools and institutions has been an important step in public/private collaboration. That said, however, the extent of the private sector's actual involvement in the design, development and governance of VET has varied widely among countries.

Stage 3: Market-driven VET

The growing recognition of the need for continuous training throughout a person's working life linked to basic education and broad-based initial training has encouraged governments to involve the private sector in the development and delivery of VET and to develop market-driven mechanisms to make it competitive and responsive to demand. A more entrepreneurial spirit has accordingly been introduced that tailors the content and delivery of training to enterprise needs, attention has been given to cost recovery and criteria have been devised to regulate the quality of the training delivered by the private sector.

The role of the national training authority as training provider has diminished and its functions have been increasingly delegated to a variety of regional/local and sectoral/industry bodies. A more conscious effort has also been made to involve the private sector in the development of training policy and its delivery. These features are explored in more detail in Part III of this paper.

In its most advanced form, the system is driven by the private sector, while the government establishes the overall framework and provides the necessary incentives to motivate the collective effort. Public VTIs are subjected to the same market forces as private providers and are devolved to local authorities, to sectoral or industrial bodies or to the institutes themselves so as to make training more demand-driven and to recover the cost of delivering it.

Countries do not necessarily fall neatly into one of the categories described above. Though in the face of the challenges posed by globalization and technological change there is a clear tendency for VET to be demand-driven rather than supply-oriented and for the private sector to play a prominent and formal role in its governance and delivery, there are many intermediate stages in the transition from state-controlled, centralized and supply-driven VET to a decentralized and market-driven system dominated by the private sector. There may also be differences between sectors, industries and regions within a given country. In practice, the respective roles of government and private sector in providing VET will depend, inter alia, on a country's level of economic development, on the strength of its private sector and on the perception of the government's core function.

Thus, stage 2 is still prevalent in lower-income developing countries with a weak organizational structure and a weak private sector and training market, while stage 3 is rapidly gaining ground in industrialized countries. In most countries, however, public/private collaboration in the design and delivery of VET falls somewhere in between.

II. TOWARDS A NEW FORM OF ROLE SHARING

The reason why

There are several interconnected factors behind the recent moves by the state to seek the collaboration of private-sector stakeholders in VET:

· the fiscal crisis, which has resulted in a chronic shortage of public funds to meet the increasing demand for training;

· the rise of the market economy and the growing recognition of the private sector's critical role in skill development;

· the rapid and continuous changes in technology, workplace organization and practices and skill requirements, resulting in a demand for life-long and continuing training and a need to reform the system of initial training;

· the inability of public VET systems to respond quickly to new labour market requirements.

New skill requirements and the need for private sector involvement

The world is in the process of transition from an industrial era to one of information and communications - often referred to as the knowledge society. The new society requires a different kind of learning, one that enhances "trainability" thus employability. For the individual, learning for employability means developing the capacity to find, keep and change employment, or to generate self-employment. Employable skills facilitate the vertical and horizontal mobility of workers in the labour market and their continuous adaptation to changing technology and new forms of work organisation. For the worker, learning for employability means life-long learning and the acquisition of competency in flexible skills that enhance mobility and job security. For the enterprise, employable skills mean that its workers are able to respond to changing workplace requirements and enhance enterprise competitivity and growth. For the state, the concept means creating a workforce with adaptable competencies that are in line with the changing demands of the labour market, as a critical factor in contributing towards the goal of full employment.

Learning, however, does not automatically lead to employability. Employability is determined more by the ability to transfer core competencies from one job to another and from one enterprise to another rather than by job-specific skills. It requires a sound educational foundation and a broad initial training upon which continuing learning can build throughout a person's working life. Certain approaches in industrialised and rapidly industralising countries indicate a shift from the old paradigm of VET and an active search for new responses. Some of these are given below.

Old paradigm	New paradigm
supply-driven approach	Search for demand-driven approaches
training for employment	Learning for employability
in-service training	Concept of continuing life-long learning
training and focus on the teacher/trainer	Self-learning and focus on the learner
one-time learning	Continuing recurrent life-long learning
education and training separated	Education and training integrated (a sound general education and broad-based initial training are essential bases for life-long continuing learning)
specialization in one skill	a search for multi-skilling
skill recognition based on training period and examination	Recognition based on competency and prior learning
rigid and fixed entry and exit	Flexible and multiple entry and exit
focus on formal sector	Recognition of the need to focus both on formal and informal sectors
training for wage employment	Training for wage and self-employment
centralized system	Decentralized system requiring both strong national and decentralised institutions
policy and delivery dominated by state	Policy and delivery separate, market-driven
governance dominated by the state	Participatory governance, recognition of multiple actors, social dialogue

It may be said that training for employability rests at the core of the new paradigm. It calls on the capacity of the individual to adapt to changes in work and its organization, to combine different types of knowledge and to build on them through a lifelong process of self-learning. The development of an employable skills profile has been proposed, for example, by the Canadian Task Force on Transition into Employment, as a basis for developing curricula in secondary schools. The concept could be expanded into initial training programmes for youth as well as retraining programmes.

The core knowledge, skills and attitudes that enhance employability may be grouped as:

· intellectual skills for diagnosis and analysis, innovation and learning to learn;

· social and interpersonal skills involved in communication, decision-making, teamwork and adaptability, positive attitudes and behaviour, and the ability to assume and discharge responsibilities;

· business and entrepreneurial skills, including the development of an entrepreneurial attitude at work, creativity and innovation, the ability to identify and create opportunities, calculated risk-taking and an understanding of basic business concepts such as productivity and cost and skills for self-employment;

· multiple technical skills in generic areas which are central to a number of occupations that facilitate occupational mobility.

The question is how to reform state-driven VET systems to deliver such training in response to the new requirements created by multi-faceted and rapidly changing labour markets. The objectives, content, structure and delivery of training accordingly need to be re-examined so as to improve:

· the relevance of VET systems to the needs of the market;

· their effectiveness in producing the quality and number of skilled workers required and in making the best use of available resources;

· their equity in providing access for all citizens to training opportunities in order to redress the disadvantages encountered by specific groups of the population;

· their links with the private sector.

The nature of skill development in today's world requires closer links to the private sector. Moreover, the challenges are too complex and the available resources too scarce for any single player, be it public or private. The question, therefore, is how to foster a collective effort to enhance the relevance, effectiveness, efficiency and equity of VET systems and to make use of the comparative advantages of the public and private stakeholders to their mutual benefit.

Public and private stakeholders and their comparative advantages

Because enterprises are market-driven and need to respond rapidly to change, they tend to possess precisely the qualities that are lacking in the state-driven VET systems, their particular strength lying in their ability to provide practical, on-the-job skills that reflect market requirements. They are therefore in a position to make a strategic contribution to the relevance, effectiveness and efficiency of those systems by improving the quality, capacity and productivity of the training provided. Their concern with skills development, however, is primarily driven by the short-term objective of meeting their own needs of increased productivity and better-quality goods and services. Training provided by employers is often job-specific and focused on better skilled workers, and may not be systematic. It therefore does not necessarily enhance the flexibility and mobility of the individuals and it may not be provided in areas of long-term strategic importance to social and economic development. In addition, by its very nature, enterprise training leaves out those outside the formal employment structure, such as the unemployed, the self-employed and informal sector workers. The role of employers' organizations can be important in voicing enterprise concern and in influencing training policy and governance, drawing attention to the need for long-term investment in continuing training and encouraging learning within enterprises.

The state can contribute to enterprise effectiveness by creating a supportive environment through economic growth and employment creation. It can also promote a broader and longer-term perspective for national training policy and systems, as well as maintain a balance between considerations of efficiency and equity. Moreover, greater enterprise involvement in the provision of training can release more of the state's capacity in areas which otherwise receive little attention.

The comparative advantage of the non-profit voluntary sector lies in its ability to reach the grassroots level even in remote areas and to provide training for the poorest and most disadvantaged population that public providers have difficulty, and enterprises little interest, in reaching. Voluntary agencies, however, often fail to have a large-scale impact, and thought needs to be given as to how public policy and measures can support voluntary sector initiatives so as to make them more effective and increase their capacity.

Individual workers and trainees play a vital role in managing their own learning and investing in personal development. Workers' organizations can do much to ensure access to broad-based and portable skills that enhance worker mobility. They can also give a voice to those who are outside formal employment structures - the unemployed, the self-employed, the informal sector workers - and play a critical role in creating a learning culture among workers.

There are a multitude of stakeholders in VET within the government and the private sector. The government, for example, has a wide range of agencies that are involved in education and training through their national, regional or local activities in development planning, education, labour, rural and industrial development, health and agriculture. The same diversity exists in the private sector, with various employers' organizations and chambers of commerce at the federal, sectoral, industry and local level, special associations for small enterprises, etc. Similarly, there are a multitude of workers' organizations and voluntary agencies at these levels. For all its complexity, this situation presents VET with a wealth of largely untapped resources.

III. THE BASIS FOR A NEW FORM OF ROLE SHARING

The scope and effectiveness of the state's role in VET is central to, and inextricably linked with, the role of other institutions within the non-government or private sector. The questions are: what are the fundamental tasks of the government which lie at the core of its mission, the tasks that it must take the lead in, and those which it is best at? What should be the size and scope of state action? The determining factors are the characteristics of the state and how it differs from other institutions in society.

Core functions and capacity of the government

As put by the World Bank in its World Development Report (1997), in the current environment the state needs to match its role to its capacity. It must, accordingly, focus on those core public activities where it has the necessary strength and capability and, for the rest, seek the collaboration of other stakeholders in the private sector which have a comparative advantage.

The power of the state lies in its legitimate use of regulatory power and in its jurisdiction over its citizens. In addition to creating an enabling environment for economic growth and employment generation, there are three core tasks in the field of VET that are specific to the government:

· laying the foundations for, and ensuring the maintenance of, an overall national VET policy and system and regulating the system through an appropriate framework of laws and regulations;

· mobilizing collective investment in VET and searching for incentives;

· protecting the public (especially vulnerable and at-risk groups) from exploitative practices and ensuring equitable access to VET opportunities.

Seeking greater private sector involvement: some features of demand-led VET

Separation of policy, system development and financing from delivery; participatory governance of VET

The separation of policy, system development and financing from delivery lies at the heart of demand-led vocational education and training and increased private sector participation in VET. While the design of the national training policy and system is one of the core functions of the state, it is increasingly recognised that, in the interests of efficiency and effectiveness, this must be shared with the private stakeholders in responding to changing labour market requirements.

Private stakeholders can make an important contribution to the design and development of national VET policies and systems, such as:

· providing relevant and up-to-date information on labour market requirements and occupational information and guidance;

· reflecting private sector concerns in the government's policy and implementation strategies and in the relevant laws and regulations;

· ensuring the relevance of VET to labour market requirements;

· participating in the institutional framework for policy design and training delivery;

· determining the modes of training delivery;

· establishing standards for certifying the quality of the training institutions, managers and teaching staff, and the level of competency imparted;

· co-financing VET;

· designing the content of VET so as to reflect labour market requirements;

· evaluating and providing feedback on the overall performance of the system.

The role of the private sector partners in designing VET policies and systems varies among countries and sectors. In many developing countries, their involvement is restricted to the presence of employers' and workers' representatives on training boards and committees. Their effectiveness in shaping VET policies and systems depends largely on the existence of a strong public policy in favour of private sector participation, the strength of the private sector institutions, their level and quality of representation, a participative culture and effective machinery to enable them to reflect their concerns and the realities of the world of work.

Decentralizing the design and implementation of VET by region or by industry can be an important source of dynamism, creativity and initiative that is highly responsive to local demand and changing local needs. By mobilizing all the stakeholders (enterprises, local leaders, employers, workers, training providers, educators, academics and associations), it exploits the community's private and public training resources to the full and makes the whole system more demand-driven. The decentralization of VET can be observed, inter alia, in Chile, the United Kingdom, the United States and, more recently, in South Africa.

The role of the state in VET continues to be very important, complementing the local initiatives rather than restricting them. Fiscal incentives, for example, are needed to encourage local providers to offer services that they would not otherwise supply, thereby developing the local training capacity. The state can also encourage the creation of advisory committees composed of representatives of the social partners and other stakeholders in order to secure their participation in the governance of the system. Enterprises play a key role through their membership of these advisory committees, as well as by sharing the financing and by exercising control through the contracting of training services. Public funds are used to encourage private initiative and involvement rather than to maintain the system, and this permits a considerable saving in resources. In this way the government motivates and supports the overall development of VET instead of controlling it, which might otherwise have the effect of subduing local initiative and dynamism.

Competitive, market-led delivery and regulation of VET through financial incentives

The role of the state and the private sector in training is influenced by the concern of each in initial and continuing training. The primary concern of the state is to provide VET for people outside the employment structure: initial training for first-time job seekers, trainin