In 1993-1995 case studies have been undertaken in both the English speaking and French speaking countries in the Africa region. The case studies focused on two major areas of growing importance in technical and vocational education. One is the "Role of Technical and Vocational Education in Educational Systems"; the other is "Policy and Legislation in Technical and Vocational Education to enhance co-operation with the World of Work".

The case studies from Anglophone countries included those of Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Swaziland, Uganda and Zimbabwe while those from the Francophone countries were mainly Cameroon, Congo, Ce d'Ivoire, Madagascar and Senegal. Guinea Bissau and Cape Verde from the Lusophone zone were also included. These case studies are representative samples of countries in the above and other zones of Sub-Saharan Africa. The similarities in their structures and administrative setups are greater than their differences. The problems and constraints which exist are also similar in many respects.

The present synthesis of the case studies is aimed at facilitating the achievement of UNESCO's goals and objectives which include, inter alia, fostering the international exchange of ideas, experiences and studies on policy issues, and facilitating access to data bases and documentation.

The challenges facing the African nations in their efforts to develop their technical and vocational education systems and the wide spectrum of national policies and innovative measures undertaken to meet these challenges provide interesting insights and alternative strategies for policy makers, educational planners, researchers, employers, employees and trainees.

1. Introduction

The spirit of independence that swept through the African continent in the early 60s heralded a new era that saw a phenomenal expansion in Education and an increased demand for available goods and services. Improvement in health care, lead to higher population growth which in turn, put pressure on the demand for education, food, health services, housing, transportation and other needs.

Over the past three decades, Africa has had to face new challenges in both the political and the socio-economic contexts. There is hardly any country that has not been affected by these new challenges. The impacts and influences on education and training in general and on technical and vocational education and training in particular have been tremendous.

1.1. The socio-economic context

Most African countries today are still characterised by the following:

a) Fast growing populations, mainly within 3% range, most of which are composed of youth. For example 48% of Uganda's population is under 15 years of age and 20% being children under 5 years. This implies a heavily dependent population.

b) Most populations are rural based, between 70 and 90%, mainly depending on subsistence farming. In urban areas most people are engaged in crafts and manual labour.

c) Most African countries have fragile political systems some of which have in the past adversely affected economic and social activities. In the current political democratization process, more are still threatened with civil strives that are ethnically or religiously motivated.

d) The world economic recession experienced over the past decade found African economies most vulnerable. Combined with prevalent economic malaise at home, most countries experienced high rates of inflation, frequent devaluation of national currencies, and high interest rates, all of which adversely affected the growth of business and industry, and eroded the purchasing power of the people.

The above situation has lead to:

a) a decline in enrollments in both education and training institutions;
b) falling standards in education and training;

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Table 1 (b) Growth in Secondary Education since Independence

YEAR	No. OF SCHOOLS	GROWTH (%)	No. OF PUPILS	GROWTH (%)	No. OF STAFF	GROWTH (%)
1980	197	...	74,321	...	3,730	...
1981	694	252.28	148,690	100.06	4,874	30.67
1982	738	6.34	225,647	51.76	6,033	23.78
1983	790	7.05	316,438	40.24	8,808	46.00
1984	1,182	49.62	416,413	31.59	14,718	67.10
1985	1,215	2.79	482,000	15.75	17,315	17.65
1986	1,276	5.02	537,427	11.50	19,487	12.54
1987	1,395	9.33	604,652	12.51	21,981	12.80
1988	1,484	6.38	641,005	6.01	23,598	7.36
1989	1,502	1.21	695,882	8.56	24,547	4.02
1990	1,512	0.67	672,658	-3.34	25,487	3.83
1991	1,515	0.20	710,619	5.64	25,204	-1.11
1992	1,517	0.13	657,344	-7.50	25,792	2.33
1993	1,518	0.07	635,202	-3.37	24,058	-6.72
1994	1,521	0.20	679,416	6.96	25,597	6.40

* From Munetsi N. N. M. (1995) Country Case Study on Technical and Vocational Education in Zimbabwe, UNESCO (BREDA)

Table 2 (a) * Growth in Primary Education, 1989-1993 in Kenya

Year	No. of Schools	Enrollments Boys	Girls	Total	No. of Teachers Trained	Untrained	Total	% Untrained
1989	14,691	2,766,000	2,623,300	5,389,300	114,087	49,522	163,609	30.3
1990	14,864	2,766,300	2,262,000	5,392,300	121,461	51,656	173,117	29.8
1991	15,196	2,797,100	2,659,000	5,456,100	129,229	44,141	173,370	25.5
1992	15,465	2,806,800	2,723,400	5,530,200	135,405	40,954	176,359	23.2
1993*	15,902	2,832,695	2,633,322	5,466,017	142,517	32,531	175,048	18.6

* As at April, 1993

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A decade later, it dawned on most States that liberal education alone was not sufficient. The school curriculum was no longer relevant to the needs of new nations. They required, besides administrators and clerical officers, a cadre of qualified scientific and technological manpower to take over and develop the nation's productive capacities. Political independence without the capability and capacity to provide the nation with necessary goods and services such as food, housing, health care, transportation and communication, left the new Nation State still chronically dependent on developed nations and donnor agencies. In an effort to overcome this situation most countries reviewed their educational systems resulting in major changes and innovations.

In Kenya, for example, a new system of education, popularly known as 8.4.4., was introduced in 1985. It was a result of several national education commissions conducted since 1964. It embodied the new vision of vocationalizing the school curriculum after discovering that society had been disillusioned by the previous system of education that was mainly academic. The new system included changes in the structure where primary education would take 8 years, secondary education 4 years and a basic university degree 4 years. (Kenya, 1984; Okaka, 1993).

Similarly Nigeria and Ghana also reviewed their educational systems and came up with new structures (6-3-3-4) comprising of 6 years of primary education, 3 years junior secondary, 3 years senior secondary and 4 years university education. (Ehiametalor, 1993; Baiden, 1993).

Uganda is reviewing its educational system and has proposed a structure of 8-3-2-3 system which is still under debate. (Lugujjo and Manyindo, 1993).

The Francophone countries of Africa have also experienced similar dilemas in general education and have instituted reviews on similar lines.

In this respect, it can be noted that National Fora on Education which brought changes into educational contents and at times structures were organized in French-speaking countries. Thus in Senegal a national forum on education and training in 1981 advocated among others:

Concerning structures, three levels:

- a 13 year basic education cycle including preschool education from 3 to 6 years and 10 year compulsory polyvalent education;

(...)

A common feature underlining educational reforms in Africa is the introduction and expansion of technical and vocational education in the general school curriculum. This is due to the increased realization of the importance of technical and vocational education in national development.

1.3. Role of Technical and Vocational Education in National Development

In the Human Development Report of 1994 the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) underscores the UN's lifelong commitment to engage in a battle for peace on two fronts: the security front to secure freedom from fear and the economic and social front where victory means freedom from want. The latter is inestricably linked to job security. (UNDP, 1994 p.3).

Since the mid 1960's, as well exemplified by the situation in Ghana, Kenya, Senegal, Cameroon and several other African States, the paradox of "too many people looking for jobs and too many jobs unfilled" has buffled many planners and policy makers. There is a growing number of the unemployed among the educated while there is, at the same time, a persistent shortage of vocational and technical skills in many areas of the economy.

There is already a major mismatch between available trained manpower and the type of employment opportunities in the world of work. The problem is summarized in box 3 below by the Swazi government.

Box 1: Swaziland Government Policy Statement

"All available information suggests that there exists a demand/supply disequilibrum with respect to trained people and the type of available employment opportunities. The disequilibrum varies according to level and type of skill. Thus, manual workers and those qualified for clerical positions will be oversupplied while scientific and technical professional will be undersupplied during the coming decade. In order to offset this problem. Government is committed to an appropriate expansion of postsecondary facilities which includes both an expansion of University facilities to accommodate the more highly qualified Swazi school leavers, and the creation of opportunities to pursue more technical and vocational subjects through institutions such as Vocational and Commercial Training Institute-Matsapha and Swaziland College of Technology." (pp. 116-117)*

* From Mndebele, C.B. and Lukhele, L.B. (1993) Country Case Study on Technical and Vocational Education in Swaziland, UNESCO (BREDA)

2. TVE in the National Education Framework

structures. The duration to obtain basic university degree also varies from 3 years in Congo, Uganda and Swaziland to 4 years in Ghana, Nigeria and Kenya.

In Cameroon two systems of education exist with two different sets of structures, programmes and examination practices. The Anglophone system is based on a 7-5-2 system (i.e. 7 years of primary school, 5 years of first cycle secondary school and 2 years of high school). The Francophone system is based on a 6-4-3 system (6 years of primary school, 4 years of first cycle secondary school and 3 years of second cycle secondary school). In both systems the duration of study in technical colleges is the same where entrants from primary level take a 4-3 year programme (i.e. 4 years first cycle and 3 years second cycle).

These variations in both Francophone and Anglophone countries are reflected in the total years of schooling, which range from 16 to 17 years to obtain a University degree.

Table 4: Duration of Study at each level of Education in selected African countries

Country	Primary level	Secondary level		University	Total
		Jun.	+ Sen.
Burkina Faso	6	4	+3	4	17
Cameroon	6 (French) 7 (English)	4 5	+3 +2	3 3	16 17
Congo	6	4	+3	3	16
C魌e d'Ivoire	6	4	+3	4	17
Ghana	6	3	+3	4	16
Kenya	8	4		4	16
Madagascar	6	4	+3	4	17
Nigeria	6	3	+3	4	16
Senegal	6	4	+3	4	17
Swaziland	7	3	+3	3	16
Uganda	7	4	+2	3	16
Zimbabwe	7	4	+2	3	16

* Cameroon offers two separate systems. One for the French speaking Region and the other for the English speaking Region.

Source: UNESCO (BREDA) Country Case Studies

Of major interest in the education structures, is the manner in which technical and vocational education is linked into the formal education system. Except for a few cases e.g. Swaziland where those pursuing a vocational track will be dead ended in their further education in training, most systems have attempted to link up various lower levels and types of education and training to higher levels. Some of those best articulated include Ghana, Kenya, and Senegal.

(...)

To provide, alongside general education, knowledge and skills in technical and vocational fields in order to meet national manpower requirements in agriculture, business, industry and other technical services.

Specific Objectives:

The specific objectives of TVE commonly shared include the following:

1. To expose pupils at the basic education level to a wide range of practical activities in order to make them familiar with and to stimulate their interests in vocational subjects so as to give them equal opportunities to choose their future careers.

2. To facilitate the interpretation, application and translation of basic knowledge and understanding of fundamental facts and principles of scientific processes and techniques to be able to produce and use tools and labour-saving devices for productive work.

3. To inculcate an appreciation of the dignity of human labour as an invaluable resource base.

4. To equip students with relevant productive and entrepreneural skills that will prepare them for gainful employment or self employment.

5. To provide skilled labour to march the demand for manpower in the scientific, technological and commercial sectors of the nation's economy.

6. To refine and consolidate indigeneous artistic and technological skills in order to produce products of aesthetic and cultural value.

7. To impart skills necessary for the protection, utilization and conservation of environmental heritage.

8. To increase scientific and technological literacy among youth thus fostering a proper understanding of the intricacies of modern technological advancement.

9. To encourage the equal access and participation of girls and women in technical and vocational education.

10. To provide a sound foundation for further education and training in the spirit of lifelong learning.

2.3. Legislation of Technical and Vocational Education

The importance accorded to TVE in a given society is reflected in the existing legislation establishing it. It can be observed that legislation dealing with technical and vocational education in most countries came into effect much later after the promulgation of the Education Acts. Technical and vocational education may have

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In Uganda an Education Review Commission (EPRC) submitted to the Government a White Paper on technical and vocational education in 1992. The paper called for the restructuring of education to include technical and vocational education from primary to tertiary levels. It called for the integration of TVE and business education as well as equiping technical training institutions with modern tools and equipment.

An analysis of the evolution of education in Congo from 1960 underlines important steps towards the implementation of an educational policy with more or less well defined features. All of these characteristics are the will to promote democratic access to education.

In 1965, all schools were nationalised and put under state control. From 1970 to 1977 the background document "l'Ecole du Peuple" was produced.

In 1991 "la Conf閞ence Nationale Souveraine" the Souvereign National Conference" was held which confirmed the failure of "l'Ecole du Peuple" the Peoples School and initiated several steps to reorientate the educational system. These were:

- the promotion of the technical and professional training by reforming the programme and adapting it to the socio-economic context;

- the active participation of socio-economic partners in the development of education;

- the creation of a state secretarial technical training.

In Senegal, reference can be made to the legislation and to the following steps since 1970:

- The orientation law of National Education of 1971 was the first law on national education and training in Senegal. It tries at once to assign to technical and professional training the target population of this training.

The Orientation Law of 1991.

The recommendations of CNREF have led to the adoption of the orientation law for education of February 1991. This law includes, among others, two major innovations aiming at systematising a permanent basic education and a better oriented technical and professional training. Thus this was conceived the national and permanent education to serve the Senegalese people. It aims completely and definitively to eradicate illiteracy as well as the professional improvement and social promotion of all

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Technical Teacher Education Colleges and the Institute of Professional Studies. The Ministry of Employment and Social Services is responsible for the National Vocational Training Institute (NVTI) and Integrated Community Centre for Employable Skills (ICCES) while the Ministry of Transport and Communication is responsible for Ghana Technical Training Centre. Other technical and vocational training programmes are offered in different ministries and departments including the office of the Head of the Civil Service, Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Health.

In Zimbabwe, school-based technical and vocational education is administered by the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports while the administration and supervision of technical colleges is the responsibility of the Ministry of Higher Education.

In Kenya, the Ministry of Education is only responsible for the formal school curriculum including primary, secondary and teacher education colleges for these levels. The bulk of the technical and vocational education and training programmes are offered in institutions such as Youth Polytechnics, Technical Training Institutes, Institutes of Technology, National Polytechnics, Technical Teacher Training Colleges and National Industrial Vocational Training Centres (NIVTC) all of which fall under the Ministry of Research, Technical Training and Technology (MRTTT). Other Ministries including Agriculture and life stock; Health; Communications and Lands and Settlement do have their own departmental schools catering for their specific training needs. There is a growing number of private schools and colleges offering various TVE programmes.

In most Francophone countries, the Ministry of Education has the overall responsibility for formal education including technical and vocational education. However some technical and vocational training programmes are run by other Ministries.

It is quite obvious that with increased demand for occupational training and the escalating cost of training, there is a need to harmonize the provision of TVE to avoid dublication and wastage that is currently going on. Harmonization will further enhance quality and relevance with appropriate certification.

2.5. Financing

Technical and vocational education and training programmes are expensive to run compared to general education. It has been estimated that the cost of one technical school is equivalent to two or three schools offering general education.

(...)

The resources of NEF come from African Development Bank ADB, the World Bank, the trainers (15% of training cost), the enterprises involved in the co-funding of the Employment Diploma Programme and the NDGS.

In Senegal, as in all the other countries, the financing and regulation of technical and professional training have been assured a primary place by the State.

Apart from the State other resources come from international aid, the NGOs and mostly the enterprises. The enterprises annually pay to the State a tax called a lump sum contribution for the employers, (CFCE). 6% of the CFCE is used in the National Office for Professional Training. (ONFP) NOPT for its functioning and its training activities. This 6% amounts approximately to 300 million CFA.

A study is presently being undertaken for the creation of a Fund for Technical and Professional Training financing.

All these initiatives indicate the great concern of various states to have reliable financing mechanisms for technical training at all levels.

It is very unlikely that more funding for TVE will be available in the foreseable future. It is incumbent on all African States currently heavily dependent on foreign aid to explore, more vigorously into alternative ways of financing their education and training programmes.

2.6. TVE in the School Curriculum

The extent to which credibility is given to national policy on TVE in the school system depends on the types of subjects offered and the status they are given in the curriculum. If they are not introduced early enough and if they are merely optional then both learners and society at large will not take them seriously.

Kenya seems to be the only country that offers a wide range of TVE subjects at the primary school level (See table 5) These include: Agriculture, Art, Art and Craft, Business education, home science and music. Ghana offers agriculture and life skills at the basic education level. Other countries do not seem to focus on TVE at the basic education level.

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Table 5: Technical and Vocational Subjects offered at Primary and Secondary level

	Ghana	Kenya	Nigeria	Uganda	Swaziland	Cameroon	Congo	C魌e d'Ivoire	Madagascar	Senegal
Primary level
Agric	x	x				x		x		x
Art		x
Art & Craft		x				x
Busin. Educ.		x
Home Science		x				x
Music		x
Life Skills	x
Sec. level
Agric	x	x	x	x	x	x		x	x	x
Art & design		x
Draw & design		x				x	x	x	x	x
Tech. Draw.	x					x	x	x	x	x
Busin. educ.	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x
Build const.		x	x			x	x	x	x	x
Electr.		x	x	x		x	x	x	x	x
Electronics			x	x		x	x	x	x	x
Metal works		x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x
Plastic			x
Power Mech		x				x	x	x	x	x
Auto mech.			x			x	x	x	x	x
Wood work		x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x	x
Life skills	x
Basic tech. skills	x
Vocat. skills	x

(...)

2.8. Teacher Education

Teacher preparation for TVE is carried out at both Technical Colleges and Universities even though TVE programmes in universities are relatively newer.

Box 3: TVE Teachers Training Colleges and Universities in some countries

Teacher Education for TVE	Teacher Training Institutions
Country	Advanced Technical Teachers College, Kumasi
Ghana	University College of Education, Winneba University College of Cape Coast
Kenya	Kenya Technical Teachers College Kenyatta University Moi University Egerton University University of Benin
Nigeria	Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria University of Nigeria, Nsukka University of Science and Technology, Port Hartcourt
Uganda	Uganda Polytechnic Institute of Teacher Education, Kyambogo Swaziland College, Technology
Swaziland	University of Swaziland (Pre-vocational Agriculture Teachers) Gwern Technical College
Zimbabwe	Belvedre, Technical Teachers College Chinhoyi Technical Teachers College ENIAET - Grade II Tech. Teachers
Cameroon	ENIET Grade I Tech. Teachers ENSET - Higher Tech. Teacher Training
Congo	ENSET - Institut P閐agogique National de l'Enseignement
C魌e d'Ivoire	Technique et Professionnel (IPNETP) Ecole Normale Sup閞ieure de l'enseignement technique et professionnel (IPNETP)
Gabon	Ecole Normale Secondaire de l'Enseignement Technique
Guin閑	Ecole Normale Secondaire de l'Enseignement Technique
Madagascar	Ecole Normale Sup閞ieure de l'Enseignement Technique et professionnel (ENSETP)
Senegal	Ecole Normale Sup閞ieure de l'Enseignement Technique et professionnel (ENSETP)

In the past, TVE teacher education was conducted in one of the National Polytechnics. Today the trend is moving toward providing graduate teachers by instituting TVE teacher education programmes at the University level. This will go a long way in enhancing the status of TVE as teachers can now compete favourably for career opportunities with their counterparts.

Given the demand for technical and vocational teachers in all educational and training programmes, the current production is quite insufficient. Trainers of TVE teachers in most countries usually go to universities overseas for training. The lack of qualified

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Table 7: NATIONAL OPEN APPRENTICESHIP SCHEME, EDO STATE, NIGERIA

Trade	Recruitment From Inception to December, 1995
	Male	Female	Total
Fashion	995	1,206	2,201
Secretarial Studies	1,105	1,055	2,160
Hair Dressing	-	751	751
Furniture Makine	964	-	964
Auto-Mechanic	656	-	656
Auto-Electrician	695	-	695
Electronics	604	-	604
Refrigerator and Air Conditioning	605	-	605
Printing	215	-	215
Art and Sign	155	-	215
Panel Beating	125	-	125
Shoe Making	121	-	121
Music	155	61	216
Total	6,395	3,073	9,468

Source: National Directorate of Employment, Benin City, 1994 from Ehiametalor (1995) A Country Case Study in Technical and Vocational Education in Nigeria, UNESCO (BREDA).

3. Cooperation between Technical and Vocational Institutions and Enterprises

Traditionally, educational institutions have been rather conservative and reluctant to adapt to changes in society and the world of work. The current economic constraints coupled with rising costs of tools, technical equipment and training materials have made it more difficult for TVE institutions in Africa to offer quality and relevant programmes. Businesses and enterprises on the other hand survive on competitiveness in the production of their products or services. They are, as a result, more responsive to changes and new technologies. Cooperation with TVE institutions will have a positive effect on all aspects of training activities including curriculum, tools and equipment, training materials and staffing.

3.2. Cooperation Activities Today

Today a wide range of activities are carried out as TVE institutions strive to meet the skill demands for technical occupations in business and industry.

3.2.1. Industrial Vocational Training

The oldest legal form of cooperation initiated by some governments in vocational training was through the Industrial Vocational Training Act as seen in Ghana (1970); Kenya (1971); Zimbabwe (1978), Uganda (1979); C魌e d'Ivoire (1982) and Swaziland (1982). In other countries various Government Ministries and departments have formulated policies to govern industrial training.

In Kenya, the Act established an Industrial Training Council which, for example, has been responsible for the recruitment of some 3,261 craft apprentices and 1,512 technician apprentices between 1988 and 1993. An industrial Levy Fund was also established. Enterprises contribute to the levy and are reimbursed their training costs when they participate.

In Nigeria, the National Directorate of Employment has facilitted the recruitment of more than half a million youths in the National Open Apprenticeship Scheme since its inception in 1987. In Edo State alone a total of 9,468 youths (50% female) had benefited by the end of 1993.

Technical and vocational education institutions have not been direct beneficiaries of these schemes although they have provided the training in many cases. Common areas within which TVE institutions and enterprises cooperate include the following.

(...)

three months alternating with regular institutional terms are arranged. In some cases, six months or one year placements are organized to enable trainees gain on-the-job experiences in the world of work.

A common practice has been for individual institutions to approach enterprises and make arrangements to suit their time schedules and types of programmes. Unfortunately country experiences reveal that the practice has not been successful.

Continuing education and training

There is a growing demand for continued education and training by those already in employment. The main causes for this demand include:

a) the need for more general education for the majority of the youth who terminated their education at the primary level and now wish to continue;

b) the need to acquire more advanced and new technical skills brought about by the technological changes prompting shifts, in businesses and industry to new products and services,

c) the need on the part of the more able and ambitious workers to advance their knowledge and skills in order to enhance their careers.

Polytechnics and other advanced technical colleges run evening and part time courses for industry and the rest of the work force to meet the above needs.

3.2.5. Research and Development Activities

Universities and advanced technical institutions have a pool of higher manpower in many technical fields critical to national development. Some institutions are already collaborating with industry to conduct basic and applied research in the development of new products or enhancement of existing products through innovations. However, the full potential of collaboration in this area is still largely untapped.

The rapid growth of the informal sector in Africa is a challenge to technical and vocational institutions. A wide range of innovations have emerged resulting in products and services that are affordable by the local consumers who cannot afford the high cost of imported goods. At present, the capacity of this informal sector to provide more jobs for the growing labour force and its technological capacity to provide the local market

(...)

attachment management mechanism nationwide leaves many individual institutions struggling to seek for placements resulting in conflicts and mismanagement of this important aspect of training.

3.3.3. Inappropriate methods of Assessment

Quite often industrial attachment exercises are not assessed and taken into consideration for qualification. Where this is lacking, students and staff as well as cooperating enterprises do not take the exercise seriously.

3.3.4. Inadequate Incentives for Students

Students on attachment often require some allowances to cover their travelling and subsistance costs. These are in most cases too meagre for students to value and concentrate on the attachment. Some enterprises are willing to provide places provided it will not be at cost to them. Some well established firms have had to top-up the trainees' allowances.

3.3.5. Lack of Information on the Benefits of Cooperation

Information is lacking for enterprises to know that they can benefit from the cooperation with institutions. Institutions have capacities to undertake market research, product design and improvement as well as technological innovations, all of which can benefit enterprises.

3.3.6. Favour of Supervisory and Managerial Training

Where a training levy exists most enterprises use most of their shares to provide training courses for supervisory and managerial personnel at the expense of the lower cadre personnel such as artisans, craftsmen and technicians.

4. The Development of Technical and Vocational Education in Africa: Major Challenges

Specialized crafts and trades such as ironmongery, leather work, pottery making, and house building were well respected.

Today, despite the rampant unemployment amongst those with general education, the recognition of this kind of education through deployment at administrative and leadership levels still attracts highly motivated and talented youth.

Talking about the importance of TVE without any deliberate action to follow up the rhetoric will not absolve it of its low status.

Interestingly this problem has been well known since the early days of independence as pointed out in the Ashby Commission Report to the Nigerian Government shortly before independence in 1960 (See box 4)

Box 4: The Ashby Commission Report of Nigeria (1960)

"The major defect in Nigerian education, is the strong bias toward the traditional literary and academic subjects. This is reflected in a lack of respect on the part of the public for manual labour. We strongly believe that the most effective way of correcting this would be to introduce a manual subject as an obligatory ingredient of primary and secondary schooling. We like, moreover, to see technical streams in some secondary schools leading to a school certificate examination which includes technical subjects. Experiments on this pattern have been notably successful in some other developing countries and we think this is an aspect of secondary education which Nigeria can ill afford to ignore" (FME, 1960).*

* From Ehiametalor, E.T. (1993) Country Case Study on Technical and Vocational Education in Nigeria, UNESCO (BREDA)

4.3. The Changing Needs of Societies and of the Workplace

Africa's perpetual challenge is one of producing a sufficient amount of goods and services to meet the basic needs of a rapidly growing population most of which is dependent i.e. below 15 years of age. Coupled with this challenge is the changing work environment where new knowledge and technologies are altering the skill requirements for production and maintenance. Africa too must occupy its place in the 21st scientific and technological century.

The implications for curriculum change for both teacher education and learning in TVE are enormous. Quality assurance is sought by both trainees and employers to ensure that the current mismatch between job seekers and available employment opportunities is arrested.

A major curricular issue is whether the present curricula in TVE institutions are adequate and relevant to the needs of the modern world of work which is constantly

(...)

of the nation's labour force incapacitated in terms of production. This part of the population continues to play an increasingly important role in the economy yet as shown in the case studies the participation of girls and women in technical and vocational programmes is still indeed dismal.

4.6. Cooperation with enterprises

It is now accepted generally that for TVE programmes to be of good quality and relevant, they must reflect the state-of-the-art in the world of work. To do so more effectively, it is inevitable that they cooperate with the existing enterprises which have the latest technologies and production processes that most TVE graduates will aspire to work with. Enterprises are the final consumers of the TVE products yet they are reluctant in contributing toward their preparation. What policy and regulatory mechanisms should be effected to address this problem?

Box 5: The Dakar Technopole

Mention should be made of the existence of the Dakar Technopole Project which should give considerable impulse to relations between technological - training and research institutions and firms. This Technopole which should be built on a site of 200 hectares in the centre of the Dakar-Pikine urban area, focuses around four complexes: farm produce, Environment - Energy, Telecommunication - computer science, Communication - activities. Among the many objectives which are aimed at within this project, mention can be made of exploitation of research results, invention of new production processes, involvement of the private sector in the funding and the conducting of applied research programmes, etc. The operation of a technopole lies mainly on a dynamic partnership between training and research structures and medium and small size firms. The launching of the Dakar Technopole would considerably contribute to promoting cooperation links between schools and firms in Senegal.

Source: BREDA, UNESCO, Country Case Study in TVE in Senegal, 1993

4.7. Cost-sharing in TVE

One of the most common reasons or excuses given for the lack of effective TVE programmes is the lack of finance. TVE has been, in the past, largely funded from sources external to the countries of Africa. It is now almost certain under new Structural Adjustment Programmes that these countries will not continue to be funded as before. The cost of financing TVE has increased. Modern and more versatile tools and equipment are needed to provide relevant training for the changing work place.

First-hand experiences from some of these countries, for example Kenya, where cost sharing measures have been taken indicate a decline in enrollments most particularly in the technical fields. What alternative measures can be advanced to raise funds on a more sustainable basis without discouraging enrollment ?

5. A Review of Recent Innovative Measures

more sustainable level are already emerging. These include:

a) charging the beneficiaries (students, parents and sponsors) a nominal fee;

b) introduction of production units where institutions engage in income generating activities while providing experience in their training programmes;

c) introduction of Small Business Centres where entrepreneurs come for help in acquiring skills in preparing business plans, record keeping or management skills at an affordable fee; and

d) introduction of a training levy where business and industry are obliged to contribute towards training.

Box 6: Financing of TVE in Ce d'Ivoire

The introduction in Ce d'Ivoire of a training levy to be paid by firms dates back from 1959. Its rate was then 3% of the wage bill of industrial firms. In 1966 this contribution went up to 5 and the national vocational training agency (ONFP) was set up the same year to become its managing body. Resources thus collected were used to subsidize government pre-service training institutions and also to cover ONFP's operational costs.. In 1977 a law on continuous vocational training was adopted to complete the funding mechanism. This new law made it compulsory for firms to pay the equivalent of a fraction of their salary bill. The produce of this tax was to be paid to a special account managed by the ONFP in accordance with the guidelines of a tripartite body, the maning board. The National Intervention Fund for continuous education later renamed the National Regulating Fund (FNR) was technically and financially under both the Ministry of Technical and Vocational Education on one hand and the Ministry of Finance on the other (Monier, 1990). In 1987 Funds from the learning tax intended for pre-service training, were separated from resources levied as tax on continuous education. From then The FNR became a full entity separate from ONFP, autonomous and characterised by its tripartite structure. The fund is supplied every month with deduction made by the public revenue department as taxes on salaries of 1.2%. Collected resources were paid into account open in the name of FNR to the "Caisse National d'Amortissement", this was compulsory since the public revenue department is to contribute to showing transparency in the funding channel. Fees paid by firms represented two types of resources. One half of the deduction gave to each paying firm a "drawing right" intended for funding its "firm share" training plan. The balance, this is to say 50% represented a reserve devoted to the implementation of joint projects or the allocation of additional means as "FNR share" to some firms. Respect of this principle implied separate management of the fractions of deductions. The originality of the mechanism in Ce d'Ivoire lies on two provisions: the principle on savings and the mutualization process. In accordance with the principle on savings, firms should be credited at least twelve months deductions before they can claim to be paid back for training expenses. This measure is to ensure the funds availability. Mutualization of one part of the deductions allowed among other things the implementation of joint projects. This mechanism enhanced access to training of underpriviledged wage-earners such as employees in firms which are not very active in this area; these are often small size firms. But it allowed to change a system based on constraint into an incentive mechanism. If the more dynamic firms could obtain through the FNR share, more funding than their contribution, it would indeed promote training.

Source: Atchoarena, D. Funding of TVE, IIPE, UNESCO 1994

5.3. Emergence of National Coordinating Agencies

As already noted in our previous discussions many countries have several Ministries and agencies offering a proliferation of TVE programmes. It has been difficult

6. Conclusions

Africa is once more faced with difficult socio-economic challenges which threaten to reverse any progress achieved in the improvement of the quality of life for most of her populations. The dissatisfaction with the traditionally academic systems of education which do not help to address the challenges has forced most countries to revamp the education enterprise.

In the process, technical and vocational education has been brought to centre stage because of its recognized contribution to the preparation of various categories of learners for the world of work.

A more recent but powerful challenge to educational policy makers, planners and implementers has been the task of designing, developing and effectively implementing a technical and vocational education system that will meet the needs of modern stake holders who are: learners, the community and employers.

Several countries have made bold attempts with varying degrees of success even though to a larger extent most are still inadequate. The case studies reviewed in this report revealed that there are some prospects, and that with available resources, these countries can evolve responsive and sustainable technical and vocational education systems. While in developed countries of the West and in the new industrializing countries of Asia economic growth has be